|
Bissett
C. 2005
The
feeding ecology, habitat selection and hunting behaviour
of re-introduced cheetah on Kwandwe Private Game Reserve,
Eastern Cape Province
The
re-introduction of cheetah onto small reserves in the
Eastern Cape Province has created the opportunity to
study this species in an environment (Valley Bushveld)
in which it has not previously been studied. Thus the aim of
this study is to add to the studies
of cheetah in more wooded habitats and to contribute
a better understanding of the level of specialization
or adaptability in space use, habitat selection, diet
and hunting behaviour that the cheetah possesses.
M.Sc.,
Rhodes University, South Africa
166
pp.
Bissett_2005_Cheetahs_in_Kwandwe_Game_Reserve.pdf
|
|
Bissett C. and Bernard RTF. 2006.
Habitat selection and feeding ecology of the cheetah (Acinonyx
jubatus) in thicket vegetation: is the cheetah a savanna specialist?
J. Zool., Lond. 271,
310-317.
|
Habitat selection and feeding ecology
of a reintroduced population of cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus were studied
in a 16 000 ha game reserve in the Eastern Cape Province (South
Africa). Seventy per cent of the reserve is characterized by very
dense thicket vegetation (valley bushveld) and the remainder is
open and savannalike. The results illustrated a strong effect of
sex and group size on the behavior of cheetahs. The coalition (three
adult males) killed significantly larger animals (55% of kills weighed
more than 65 kg) than single female cheetahs (less than 2% of kills
weighed more than 65 kg). Female cheetahs showed temporal and spatial
avoidance of lions by hunting at dawn and dusk and positioning their
home ranges [95% utilization distribution (UDs)] significantly farther
from the pride of lions than did the coalition. The coalition hunted
earlier and later than female cheetahs, and 46% of their kills were
made in darkness. In addition, their home range overlapped that
of the lions and they showed neither temporal nor spatial avoidance
of the lions. The rates of kleptoparasitism were lower and the kill
retention times were longer than those reported elsewhere in Africa,
and it is suggested that this is a consequence of the cover provided
by the thicket vegetation and prey size. The home ranges (95% UDs)
of female cheetahs incorporated more thicket vegetation than that
of the coalition, indicating that the coalition is less susceptible
to predation than single females. These data suggest that cheetahs
possess greater behavioural flexibility than previously reported,
that they can hunt successfully in thicket vegetation, sometimes
in darkness, that they are not restricted to killing small to medium-sized
prey, and that they may not be savanna specialists.
|
Bissett_&_Bernard_2006_Habitat_selection_and_feeding_ecology_of_cheetah_in_thicket_vegetation.pdf
|
|
Broekhuis
F. 2007
Habitat
selection patterns of cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus in the
Serengeti, Tanzania
The
Serengeti Cheetah Project in Tanzania has collected
a substantial amount of uninterrupted tracking data,
providing the perfect opportunity to test whether initial
sightings are indeed characteristic of the habitat that
is selected.
M.Sc.,
University of London
47
pp.
Broekhuis_2007_Cheetah_habitat_selection_in_the_Serengeti.pdf
|
|
Castro-Prieto A, Watcher B, Sommer S.
2011. Cheetah Paradigm Revisited: MHC Diversity in the World's Largest
Free-Ranging Population. Molecular Biology and Evolution : 1455-1468.
|
For more than two decades, the cheetah
(Acinonyx jubatus) has been considered a paradigm of disease
vulnerability associated with low genetic diversity, particularly
at the immune genes of the major histocompatibility complex
(MHC). Cheetahs have been used as a classic example in numerous
conservation genetics textbooks as well as in many related
scientific publications. However, earlier studies used methods
with low resolution to quantify MHC diversity and/or small
sample sizes. Furthermore, high disease susceptibility was reported
only for captive cheetahs, whereas free-ranging cheetahs show
no signs of infectious diseases and a good general health status.
We examined whether the diversity at MHC class I and class
II-DRB loci in 149 Namibian cheetahs was higher than previously
reported using single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis,
cloning, and sequencing. MHC genes were examined at the genomic
and transcriptomic levels. We detected ten MHC class I and four
class II- DRB alleles, of which nine MHC class I and all class IIDRB
alleles were expressed. Phylogenetic analyses and individual
genotypes suggested that the alleles belong to four MHC class
I and three class II-DRB putative loci. Evidence of positive
selection was detected in both MHC loci. Our study indicated
that the low number of MHC class I alleles previously observed
in cheetahs was due to a smaller sample size examined. On
the other hand, the low number of MHC class II- DRB alleles previously
observed in cheetahs was further confirmed. Compared with
other mammalian species including felids, cheetahs showed
low levels of MHC diversity, but this does not seem to influence
the immunocompetence of free-ranging cheetahs in Namibia and
contradicts the previous conclusion that the cheetah is a paradigm
species of disease vulnerability.
|
Castro-Prieto_et_2011_Cheetah_paradigm_revisited-MHC_diversity.pdf
|
|
Cooper AB, Pettorelli N, Durant SM. 2007. Large carnivore menus: factors affecting hunting decisions by cheetahs
in the Serengeti. Animal Behaviour 73, 651-659. |
Predation plays a key role in
shaping mammalian communities through prey killed and through the decisions and
choices of both predators and prey. We used an extensive data set from observed
hunts of a diurnal large African carnivore, the cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus,
in combination with analysis techniques originally developed in the field of
economics (discrete choice models) to examine predation decisions within the
context of the immediate environment and the reproductive and hunger status of
individuals. This is one of the first attempts at an integrated understanding
of the suite of ecological and behavioural factors that influence hunting
decisions in a large carnivore. The decision of a cheetah to hunt or not was
influenced by the abundance of their main prey, the reproductive status of the
cheetah and the presence of competitors and predators, but not by the hunger
level of the cheetah. Given that the decision to hunt is taken, prey choice is
then driven by the time of year, the sex of the predator, the abundance of prey
and the presence of competitors. We believe that discrete choice models may
provide a new step forward in our ability to understand the decisions that
animals make in their natural environment. |
Cooper_et_al_2007_Hunting_decision_by_cheetahs_in_the_Serengeti.pdf
|
|
Dalerum F, Somers
MJ, Kunkel KE and Cameron EZ. 2008. The potential for
large carnivores to act as biodiversity surrogates in
southern Africa. Biodiversity and Conservation 17,
2939-2949.
|
Biodiversity in southern
Africa is globally extraordinary but threatened by human
activities. Although there are considerable biodiversity
conservation initiatives within the region, no one has
yet assessed the potential use of large carnivores in
such actions. Surrogate approaches have often been suggested
as one such way of capitalizing on large carnivores.
Here we review the suitability of the large carnivore
guild (i.e., brown hyaena Hyaena hyaena, spotted hyaena
Crocuta crocutta, cheetah Acinonyx jubatus, leopard
Panthera pardus, lion Panthea leo and African wild dog
Lycaon pictus) to act as surrogate species for biodiversity
conservation in southern Africa. We suggest that the
guild must be complete for the large carnivores to fully
provide their role as ecological keystones. The potential
for large carnivores to act as umbrella and indicator
species seems limited. However, self-sustaining populations
of large carnivores may be useful indicators of unfragmented
landscapes. Moreover, diversity within the large carnivore
guild may reflect overall biodiversity. Although the
global appeal of the large African carnivores makes
them important international flagships, we stress that
international conservation funding must be linked to
local communities for them to be important also locally.
In summary, we suggest that the flagship value of these
large carnivores should be used to promote biodiversity
conservation in the region, and that the suggested relationship
between large carnivore diversity and overall biodiversity
is empirically tested. Finally we suggest that direct
conservation activities should focus on enhancing the
keystone values of large carnivores through complete
guild conservation and restoration.
|
Dalerum_et_al_2008_Large_carnivores_as_biodiversity_surrogates_in_southern_Africa.pdf
|
|
Durant SM, Craft ME, Hilborn R,
Bashir S, Hando J, Thomas L. 2011. Long-term trends in carnivore
abundance using distance sampling in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Journal
of
applied Ecology 48, 1490-1500. |
1.
Carnivores can have critical impacts on ecosystems, provide economic
value through tourism and are often important flagships. However,
their biological traits (e.g. low density, cryptic colouration and
behaviour) make them difficult to monitor and hence wildlife managers
rarely have access to reliable information on population trends,
and long-term information at the community level is almost completely
lacking.
2.
We use data from transect counts in the Serengeti ecosystem in Tanzania
to examine trends in abundance for seven co-existing carnivore species.
Distance-based transect counts between 2002 and 2005 are compared
with adjusted data from fixed-width transect counts across the same
area in 1977 and 1986.
3.
Distance-based methods provided density indices for the seven most
commonly seen carnivores: lion Panthera leo, spotted hyaena Crocuta
crocuta, golden jackal Canis aureus, black-backed jackal Canis mesomelas,
cheetah Acinonyx jubatus, side-striped jackal Canis audustis and
bat-eared fox Otocyon megalotis. Detection curves were used to correct
estimates fromearlier fixed-width transect counts.
4.
Trend analyses detected significant declines in densities of golden
and black-backed jackal and bat-eared fox, but found no significant
changes in spotted hyaena, lion, cheetah and side-striped jackal.
5.
Overall, despite wide confidence intervals, we show that distance-based
data can be used effectively to detect long-term trends and provide
critical information for conservation managers. Power analysis demonstrated
that for the most frequently seen species, spotted hyaena, golden
jackal and lion, abrupt declines of up to 20% may be detectable
through long-term monitoring; however, for the remaining species,
declines of 50%may only be detected half the time.
6.
Synthesis and applications. Distance methods provide a tool for
rapid counts and monitoring of several species of carnivores simultaneously
in suitable habitats and can be combined with historical fixed-width
transect counts to test for changes in density. The method can provide
key information to managers on long-term population trends and sudden
abrupt changes in population size across a carnivore community.
|
Durant_et_al_2011_Long_term_trends_in_carnivore_abundance_in_the_Serengeti.pdf
|
|
Eaton RL. 1974. Ecology. In The Cheetah - The biology, ecology, and behavior of an endangered
species.Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New York. Pp 41-87.
|
The sex ratio among adults in
the two observed areas Nairobi National Park and Amboslie Game Reserve was
about 2:1, in the litters 1:1.
In Nairobi National Park, impala, Grant's gazelle, kongoni and waterbuck occur
most frequently in the cheetah's diet. 12 of 30 aged kills were adults, 18
juveniles. Details on group size while hunting and of the herd size of the
hunted species, prey selection, the cheetah's energy budget and the interaction
of cheetahs with other species are presented.
|
Eaton_1974_The_cheetah_3_Ecology.pdf
|
|
Eaton RL. 1974. Predatory and
Killing Behavior. In The Cheetah - The biology, ecology, and behavior of an endangered
species.Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New York. Pp. 129-145.
|
Detailed description of hunting and killing behavior. Cheetahs
seldom crouches like most cats. It walks along slowly, looking for game. The
"crouch" aspect of predatory behavior in the cheetah is modified to a
state of alertness that requires holding the head high and remaining motionless
enough to maintain visual contact with the prey. The cheetah knocks over the
fleeing prey. The ontogeny of killing behavior was observed with a litter of
four cubs and the mother.
|
Eaton_1974_The_cheetah_7_Predation.pdf
|
|
Farhadinia MS, Hemami M-R. 2010. Prey selection
by the critically endangered Asiatic cheetah in central Iran. Journal of
Natural History 44(19-20):1239-49. |
The presence of the critically endangered
Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) has been verified in several
protected areas in central Iran. Prey selection by the Asiatic cheetah was
studied in Dare-Anjir Wildlife Refuge, one of its typical habitats in central
Iran where there are no carnivorous competitors. The frequency of cheetah kills
was compared with the relative abundance of each of its primary prey species
obtained through two independent surveys. Jebeer gazelle (Gazella bennettii)
was least abundant, but was the preferred prey of cheetah, whereas wild sheep
(Ovis orientalis) followed by Persian ibex (Capra aegagrus) were the most
frequently killed prey. Cheetahs selectively preyed on males of the three prey
species. Our data suggest that Asiatic cheetahs prey mainly on mountain
ungulates (wild sheep and Persian ibex), which has management implications for
effective conservation of this taxon in Iran.
|
Farhadinia_&_Hemami_2010_Prey_selection_by_cheetah_in_Iran.pdf
|
|
Frame GW, Herbison Frame
L. 1976. Population study of cheetahs and
wild dogs. Serengeti Research Institute Annual Report 1974-5.
pp. 129-138.
Serengeti Research Institute, Tanzania.
|
Cheetahs (Acinomyx jubatus)
and African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) are being studied in the Serengeti
National Park and adjacent areas. The purpose of the research is to determine
the size and trend of their populations, and to describe the extent of their
movements and their ecological requirements. The ultimate objective is to
formulate management recommendations for preserving cheetahs and wild dogs
within the artificial confines of the park's boundaries. The cheetah population
within the Serengeti ecosystem is probably in excess of 250. The high
recruitment of young cheetahs into the population indicates either an expanding
population or a stable population with high adult mortality. Individual
cheetahs are identified by means of a photographic recognition file, which is
based on the unique spot pattern on the face of every cheetah. Movements are
being studied with respect to season and the availability of prey, water and
cover. The maximum known migration distance for adult male and female cheetahs
is 40 km. for each. The minimum dry season density of cheetahs around Seronera
is about one cheetah per 3 km2.
|
Frame_&_Herbison_Frame_1976_Population_study_of_cheetahs_and_wild_dogs.pdf
|
|
Frame GW. 1976. Cheetah
Biology and behaviour. In
Annual Report 1974-75 of the Serengeti Research
Insitute, Arusha, Tanzania. Pp. 74-87.
|
The status of cheetah
in the Serengeti ecosystem is considered good, with
an estimated population of at least 500. The secrecy
of most cheetahs accounts for the apparent scarcity.
In the dry season cheetahs concentrate along the
woodland edge, and around Seronera, where the density
becomes one cheetah per 3 km2. - the highest known
density of wild cheetahs anywhere in Africa. Optimum
habitat is lightly wooded or bushed grassland. Cover
is very important for hunting, protection, and shade.
Cheetahs prey on whatever is abundant, small, and
easily caught; at Seronera this is mainly Thomson's
gazelle. Various aspects of behaviour are being
studied; these are grouping, spacing, courtship,
and development of cub play. Aspects of tourist
viewing and management are discussed.
|
Frame_1976_Cheetah_biology_and_behaviour.pdf
|
|
Ghosh G. 2009. Evaluating prospects of
reintroducing cheetahs (Aciononyx jubatus) in Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary.
Tigerpaper 36, 24-28. |
India's conservation outlook and efforts would
be better served if the cheetah was reintroduced into India, mainly because of
the amount of potential revenue that such an undertaking would generate,
through ecotourism. This paper evaluates the deciduous thorn forest
encompassing Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary as a possible reintroduction site. This
area was selected because it has a large area, the density of human habitations
is low, and it was a part of the historical range of the cheetah. The study
area also does not have a high density population of large carnivores. The
study area was analyzed through a population habitat viability analysis of
primary data collected on Kuno by line transect surveys and demographic
parameters of the cheetah, obtained from a review of literature of various
studies on the cheetah. |
Ghosh_2009_Evaluating_cheetah_reintroduction_into_Kuno_wildlife_sanctuary.pdf
|
|
Hayward MW, Hofmeyr M, O'Brien
JO, Kerley GIH. 2006. Prey preferences of the cheetah (Acinonyx
jubatus) (Felidae:Carnivora): morphological limitations
or the need to capture rapidly consumable prey before kleptoparasites
arrive? J. Zool., Lond. 270, 615-627.
|
As a charismatic carnivore that
is vulnerable to extinction, many studies have been conducted
on predation by the cheetah Acinonyx jubatus. Cheetah are generally
considered to capture medium-sized prey; however, which species
are actually preferred and why has yet to be addressed. We used
data from 21 published and two unpublished studies from six
countries throughout the distribution of the cheetah to determine
which prey species were preferred and which were avoided using
Jacobs' index. The mean Jacobs' index value for each prey species
was used as the dependent variable in multiple regression, with
prey abundance and prey body mass as predictive variables. Cheetah
prefer to kill and actually kill the most available prey present
at a site within a body mass range of 23-56 kg with a peak (mode)
at 36 kg. Blesbok, impala, Thomson's and Grant's gazelles, and
springbok are significantly preferred, whereas prey outside
this range are generally avoided. The morphological adaptations
of the cheetah appear to have evolved to capture medium-sized
prey that can be subdued with minimal risk of injury. Coincidentally,
these species can be consumed rapidly before kleptoparasites
arrive. These results are discussed through the premise of optimality
theory whereby decisions made by the predator maximize the net
energetic benefits of foraging. Information is also presented
that allows conservation managers to determine which prey species
should be in adequate numbers at cheetah reintroduction sites
to support a cheetah population. Conversely, these results will
illustrate which potential prey species of local conservation
concern should be monitored for impact from cheetahs as several
species are likely to be preyed upon more frequently than others.
|
Hayward_et_al_2006_Prey_preferences_of_the_cheetah.pdf
|
|
Hayward MW, Adendorff J, O'Brien J,
Sholto-Douglas A, Bissett C, Moolman LC, Bean P, Fogarty A, Howarth D, Slater
R, Kerley GIH. 2007. Practical Considerations for the Reintroduction of Large,
Terrestrial, Mammalian Predators Based on Reintroductions to South Africa`s
Eastern Cape Province. The Open Conservation Biology Journal 1:1-11. |
The expansion of conservation estate in South
Africa has seen large predators increasingly reintroduced in order to restore
ecological integrity, conserve threatened species and maximise tourism.
Reintroductions occurred at fenced, ecotourism sites in South Africa's Eastern
Cape Province. Lion Panthera leo reintroduction began in 2000 and has
been highly successful with a population of 56 currently extant in the region
arising from 35 reintroduced individuals. The African wild dog Lycaon pictus
population has increased to 24 from a founder population of 11.
Reintroduction of spotted hyaenas Crocuta crocuta also appears
successful, although reintroductions of leopards Panthera pardus and
cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus have been less successful. Here we review the
successes and failures of the reintroductions that have occurred in the region
and describe recommendations to assist future translocations. Ecological
attributes of each species affected the success with which they were
reintroduced. Soft-release techniques, adequate fencing, appropriate
socioeconomic environment, the order of predator reintroduction with
subordinate species released prior to dominant ones, adequate prey base and
adequate monitoring all improved the success of reintroductions. Carrying
capacity for large predators is unknown and continued monitoring and, we fear,
intensive management will be necessary in virtually all modern day conservation
areas. |
Hayward_et_al_2007_Assessment_of_large_carnivore_reintroduction_to_the_Eastern_Cape.pdf
|
|
Hayward MW, O'Brien J, Kerley GIH. 2007.
Carrying capacity of large African predators: predictions and tests. Biological
Conservation 139, 219-229. |
Successful conservation initiatives often lead
to rapid increases in large carnivore densities to the extent that
overpopulation occurs. Yet conservation managers have no way of knowing the
carrying capacity of their reserves. Here we derived relationships between the
preferred prey (species and weight range) of Africa's large predator guild and
their population densities to predict their carrying capacity in ten South
African conservation areas. Conservation managers intervened at several of
these sites because of evidence of predator overpopulation and these provided
independent tests of our predictions. Highly significant linear relationships
were found between the biomass of the preferred prey species of lion, leopard,
spotted hyaena and African wild dog, and the biomass of prey in the preferred
weight range of cheetah. These relationships are more robust than previous work
for lion, cheetah and leopard, and novel for spotted hyaena and African wild
dog. These relationships predicted that several predators exceeded carrying
capacity at four sites, two where managers expressed concerns about
overpopulation due to a decline in wildlife abundance and two where carnivores
were actively removed. The ability to predict the carrying capacity of large
predators is fundamental to their conservation, particularly in small enclosed
reserves. Every predator that preys on large, readily surveyed wildlife can
have its carrying capacity predicted in this manner based on the abundance of
its preferred prey. This will be beneficial for reintroduction attempts,
threatened species management, overpopulation estimation, detecting poaching
and in investigating intra-guild competition. |
Hayward_et_al_2007_Carrying_capacity_of_large_African_predators.pdf
|
|
Hayward MW, Adendorff J, O'Brien J,
Sholto-Douglas A, Bissett C, Moolman LC, Bean P, Fogarty A, Howarth D, Slater
R, Kerley GIH. 2007. The reintroduction of large carnivores to the Eastern
Cape, South Africa: an assessment. Oryx 41, 205-214. |
Recently, conservation estate in
South Africa's Eastern Cape Province has increased 10-fold resulting in large
predators being increasingly reintroduced to restore ecological integrity and
maximize tourism. We describe the reintroductions of large carnivores (>10
kg) that have occurred in the Eastern Cape and use various criteria to assess
their success. Lion Panthera leo reintroduction has been highly successful
with a population of 56 currently extant in the region and problems of
overpopulation arising. The African wild dog Lycaon pictus population
has increased to 24 from a founder population of 11. Preliminary results for
spotted hyaenas Crocuta crocuta
also indicate success. Wild populations of leopards Panthera pardus
exist on several reserves and have been supplemented by translocated
individuals, although deaths of known individuals have occurred and no estimate
of reproduction is available. Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus reintroduction has also been less successful
with 36 individuals reintroduced and 23 cubs being born but only 41 individuals
surviving in 2005. Criteria for assessing the success of reintroductions of
species that naturally occur in low densities, such as top predators, generally
have limited value. Carrying capacity for large predators is unknown and
continued monitoring and intensive management will be necessary in enclosed,
and possibly all, conservation areas in the Eastern Cape to ensure conservation
success.
|
Hayward_et_al_2007_Practical_considerations_for_the_reintroduction_of_large_predators.pdf
|
|
Houser A, Somers MJ, Boast LK. 2009. Home range
use of free-ranging cheetah on farm and conservation land in Botswana. South
African Journal of Wildlife Research 39(1):11-22. |
Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) movements
should be considered when developing management strategies for long-term
survival and coexistence with humans. Although work has been done in Namibia,
South Africa and Tanzania little data on the home range and territory size of
cheetah in Botswana has been published. This study aimed to estimate male and
female home range sizes and dailymovement on farmland and a game reserve in
Botswana. Cheetahs were monitored from October 2003 to April 2007. The cheetah
were fitted with cell/GPS or VHF collars and released back into their home
range. Single male home ranges were 494 km2 and 663 km2 and a coalition of two
males had a home range of 849 km2 (fixed kernel method). The females'home
ranges were 241 km2 and 306 km2 (fixed kernel method). Females travelled a mean
distance of 2.16 ± 0.07 km/day (range; 0-20 km/day) compared to 6.13 ± 0.30
km/day (range; 0-39 km/day) in males. Female maximum daily travel increased
from 4.17 km/day when cubs where in the den to 8.16 km/day when cubs had left
the den. |
Houser_et_al_2009_Home_range_of_cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf
|
Houser AM, Somers MJ, Boast LK. 2010. Spoor
density as a measure of true density of a known population of free-ranging wild
cheetah in Botswana. J Zool ,Lond 278:108-115. |
Knowledge of the abundance of animal populations
is essential for their management and onservation. Determining reliable
measures of abundance is, however, difficult, especially with wide-ranging
species such as cheetah Acinonyx jubatus. This study generated a correction
factor to calculate true cheetah density from spoor survey data and
subsequently tested its accuracy using the following season's data. Data were
collected from October 2005 to December 2006 on a known population of wild,
free-ranging cheetah in the Jwana Game Reserve, Botswana. The cheetahs in the
area were captured, tagged and hotographed. The reserve was divided into twelve
9 km transects covering all vegetation types and prey densities. The total sampling
distance was 8226 km, with a spoor density of 2.32 individual cheetah spoor per
100km2. To determine a precise and accurate spoor density, it was necessary to
sample for a longer period during the dry season (April-September) than during
the wet season (October-March). This difference may be due to cheetah
behavioural changes with seasonal variations in habitat and prey. The true
density was 5.23 cheetahs per 100km2 ranging from 3.33 to 7.78 at the low and
high points of the population, respectively. A positive linear correlation
between spoor and true density was observed. This relationship differed in the
wet and dry season and required refinement with the following season's data.
Correction factors may be viable, but require further testing taking the
behavioural responses to seasonal, habitat and prey variations into
consideration. |
Houser_et_al_2009_Spoor_density_as_measure_of_true_density.pdf
|
|
Johnson S, Mengersen K, de Waal A, Marnewick K,
Cilliers D, Houser AM, Boast LK. 2010. Modelling cheetah reloaction success in
southern Africa using an Iterative Bayesian Network Development Cycle.
Ecological Modelling 221:641-651. |
Relocation is one of the strategies used by
conservationists to deal with problem cheetahs in southern Africa. The success
of a relocation event and the factors that influence it within the broader
context of long-term viability of wild cheetah metapopulations was the focus of
a Bayesian Network (BN) modelling workshop in South Africa. Using a new
heuristics, Iterative Bayesian Network Development Cycle (IBNDC), described in
this paper, several networks were formulated to distinguish between the unique
relocation experiences and conditions in Botswana and South Africa. There were
many common underlying factors, despite the disparate relocation strategies and
sites in the two countries. The benefit of relocation BNs goes beyond the
identification and quantification of the factors influencing the success of
relocations and population viability. They equip conservationists with a
powerful communication tool in their negotiations with land and livestock
owners, which is key to the long-term survival of cheetahs in southern Africa.
Importantly, the IBNDC provides the ecological modeller with a methodological
process that combines several BN design frameworks to facilitate the
development of a BN in a multi-expert and multi-field domain. |
Johnson_et_al_2010_Modelling_cheetah_relocation_success_in_Southern_Africa.pdf
|
|
Jule
KR, Leaver LA and Lea SEG. 2008. The effects of captive experience
in reintroduction survival in carnivores: a review and analysis.
Biol. Conserv. 141, 355-363.
|
This review focuses on the success
and survivorship of captive-born versus wild-caught carnivores
used in reintroductions. Previous reviews have suggested that
reintroduction projects using captive-born animals are less
likely to be successful than projects translocating wild-caught
animals. The purpose of this paper is to examine this statistically
and investigate how captivity may affect the survival of reintroduced
carnivores. We examined results published in previous reviews,
and found evidence to support that reintroduction projects using
wild-caught animals are significantly more likely to succeed
than projects using captive-born animals. We further compiled
our own review of 45 case studies in carnivore reintroduction
projects (in 17 species across 5 families) to investigate survival
rates rather than overall project 'success'. We found that (1)
wild-caught carnivores are significantly more likely to survive
than captive-born carnivores in reintroductions; (2) that humans
were the direct cause of death in over 50% of all fatalities
and (3) that reintroduced captive-born carnivores are particularly
susceptible to starvation, unsuccessful predator/competitor
avoidance and disease.
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Jule_et_al_2008_Effect_of_captive_experience_on_reintroduction_success_of_carnivores.pdf
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Kelly M. 2001. Serengeti
cheetah viability and the lion factor. Cat News 34:28-9.
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Serengeti cheetahs are well
protected from poaching inside Serengeti National Park, but 70% of cheetah cubs
are killed by other predators, mainly lions. Within the National Park it is
likely that adult survival will remain high while juvenile survival will
fluctuate depending on predation pressure. At low lion density, the cheetah
population has a very low risk of extinction. Recently, lions did suffer an
extreme population decline on the plains by canine distemper. Currently,
however, the lion population is rebounding dramatically. What do you do when
one endangered species is killing off another in your very large reserve?
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Kelly_2001_Serengeti_Cheetah_Viability_and_Lion_Factor_CatNews_34.pdf
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Kelly MJ, Laurenson MK,
FitzGibbon CD, Collins DA, Durant SM, Frame GW, Bertram BCR, Caro TM. 1998.
Demography of the Serengeti cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) population: the first 25
years. J Zool , Lond 244:473-88.
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Data are presented on the
demography and reproductive success of cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus)
living on the Serengeti Plains, Tanzania over a 25-year period. Average age at
independence was 17.1 months, females gave birth to their first litter at
approximately 2.4 years old, interbirth interval was 20.1 months, and average
litter size at independence was 2.1 cubs. Females who survived to independence
lived on average 6.2 years while minimum male average longevity was 2.8 years
for those born in the study area and 5.3 years for immigrants, with a large
proportion of males dispersing out of the Plains population. Females produced
on average only 1.7 cubs to independence in their entire lifetime and their
average reproductive rates were 0.36 cubs per year or 0.17 litters per year to
independence. Variance in lifetime reproductive success in the cheetah is
similar to that of other mammals. No significant negative correlations were
found between adult cheetah population size and numbers of cubs reaching
independence, implying that the Plains population had not reached carrying
capacity. Annual numbers of adult female cheetahs only were correlated with
rainfall. Adult female cheetah numbers were not correlated with adult female
lion numbers on the Plains, however, reproductive rates of cheetahs were
negatively correlated with the presence of lions while cheetahs had cubs. Moreover,
cheetah reproductive success was lower during the period of high lion abundance
(1980±1994) than during the earlier period of relatively few lions (1969±1979).
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Kelly_et_al_1998_Long-term_cheetah_demography.pdf
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Kruuk H, Turner M. 1967.
Comparative notes on predation by lion, leopard, cheetah and wild dog in the
Serengeti area, East Africa. Mammalia 31:1-27.
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Lions, leopards, cheetahs and
wild dogs in the Serengeti area attack different prey size and use different
hunting techniques. The diet can change according to the individual (in
leopards) or sex (in lions). For lions, the number of hunted prey is a function
of their size, however this is not true for hyenas. Thomson's gazelle
represents the principal prey attacked by these predators, with the exception
of the lion that prefer wildebeests, for that it is responsible of only 1.2% of
its natural mortality.
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Kruuk_&_Turner_-_Predation_in_the_Serengeti_area.pdf
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Labuschagne,W.1981.Aspects of
cheetah ecology in the Kalahari Gemsbok National
Park. Conference
proceeding.
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The
Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, an area of almost
960'000 hectares, is situated in the north-western
corner of the Cape Province. Twenty cheetah groups,
comprising 43 individuals, were kept under observations
for 115 days. They were followed for more than 1200
kilometres while information on their predator-prey
relationship, territoriality and related ecology
factors, was collected. It was found that not only
did the sizes of prey species differ in relation
to the cheetah's group sizes but so did the kill
rates and the frequencies at which each group size
would kill. During an experiment which lasted 25
days, 11 cheetahs consumed 51.9 per cent of carcasses
offered, averaging a daily consumption of 3.8 kilograms
per cheetah. On average, cheetahs travelled 12.3
kilometres every 24 hours, drank water once every
82 kilometres, urinated every 4.3 km and defecated
12 every kilometres travelled. The demarcated boundaries
by urinating have been found to exceed 300 square
metres in Gemsbok Park.
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Labuschagnet_1981_Cheetah_ecology_in_the_Kalahari.pdf
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Maddox T. M. 2003 The
ecology of cheetahs and other large carnivores in a
pastoralist-dominated buffer zone
Due to
the various limitations of core-protected areas, interest
in semi-protected landscapes and the human-wildlife
interactions that occur within them is rapidly gaining
credence. One of the most important issue in this field
is the human-carnivore relationship, with many large
carnivores globally threatened on one hand and the capability
of potentially devastating impacts on humans on the
other. In this thesis, the success of cheetahs, their
competitors and their predators in two buffer zones
(Loliondo and Ngorongoro) of the Serengeti National
Park in Tanzania was examined in comparison with populations
living inside the park. The potential role played in
carnivore ecology by the Maasai pastoralists inhabiting
the buffer zones was then examined to assess the extent
to which their presence determines any of the differences.
PhD
Thesis Department of Anthropology, University College,
London & Institute of Zoology, London, 373 pp. Maddox_2003_Ecology_of_cheetahs_in_a_buffer_zone.pdf
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Lindsey P, Tambling CJ, Brummer R, Davies-Mostert
H, Hayward M, Marnewick K, Parker D. 2011. Minimum prey and area
requirements of the Vulnerable cheetah Acinonyx jubatus: implications
for reintroduction and management of the species in South Africa. Oryx 45,
587-599. |
In South Africa there
are efforts to manage reintroduced subpopulations
of the Vulnerable cheetah Acinonyx jubatus in small
reserves (10-1,000 km2) as a managed metapopulation.
We estimated areas required to support cheetahs
given varying prey densities, prey profiles and
presence/absence of competing predators. A recent
population and habitat viability assessment indicated
that 20 subpopulations of 10 cheetahs or 10 subpopulations
of 15 cheetahs are required to retain 90% of the
heterozygosity of free-ranging cheetahs and to overcome
stochastic events in the absence or presence of
lions Panthera leo, respectively. We estimate that
203 - SE 42 km2 (range 48-466 km2) is required to
support 10 cheetahs in the absence of lions, whereas
703 - SE 311 km2 (166-2,806 km2) is required to
support 15 cheetahs given equal numbers of lions,
and 2,424 - SE 890 km2 (727-3,739 km2) given equal
numbers of leopards Panthera pardus, spotted hyaenas
Crocuta crocuta, wild dogs Lycaon pictus and lions.
Existing subpopulations of cheetahs generally occur
at densities higher than our mean predicted densities
but usually within the range of predicted densities.
The large area requirements of cheetahs have implications
for the development of the managed metapopulation.
Sourcing reintroduction sites of the sizes required
to support recommended subpopulation sizes will
be difficult. Consequently, innovative measures
to increase the carrying capacity of reserves for
cheetahs and/or to enlarge reserves will be required.
Managers may be forced to stock cheetahs close to
or beyond the carrying capacity of their reserves.
Consequently, careful management of reintroduced
subpopulations will be required to prevent declines
in prey populations.
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Lindsey_et_al_2011_Minimum_prey_and_area_requirements_of_cheetah_South_Africa.pdf
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Marker L, Dickman A, Mills MGL, Jeo RM,
MacDonald DW. 2008. Spatial ecology of cheetahs on north-central Namibian
farmlands. J Zool, Lond 274, 226-238. |
Knowledge of a species' ranging behaviour is
both fundamental to understanding its behavioural ecology and a prerequisite to
planning its management. Few data exist on the spatial ecology of cheetahs Acinonyx
jubatus outside protected areas, but such areas are particularly important
to their conservation. Cheetahs on Namibian farmlands occupied exceptionally
large home ranges, averaging 1651km2 (1594km2), with no detectable effect of
sex, social grouping or seasonality. Despite such large ranges, cheetahs tended
to utilize intensively only a small fraction of that area: 50% of the fixes
were located within an average of 13.95.3% of the home range. Ranges were not
exclusive, overlapping on average by 15.817.0%, with male cheetahs showing more
intra-sexual range overlap than did females. Coalitions of males appeared to
select for a dense, prey-rich habitat, but this preference was not apparent for
other social groupings. Conflict with humans is an important contributor to the
species' decline, and these large, overlapping cheetah home ranges result in
the movements of each individual cheetah encompassing many farms (21 based on
the average home-range size). Consequently, many cheetahs may be exposed to a
minority of farmers attempting to kill them, and also that many farmers may see
the same cheetahs, thereby gaining an exaggerated impression of their
abundance. Conservation priorities for cheetahs outside protected areas are the
development of techniques for conflict resolution, as well as the maintenance
and restoration of suitable habitat and promotion of land-management practices
compatible with the continued existence of large carnivores. |
Marker_et_al_2008_Spatial_ecology_of_cheetahs_on_Namibian_farmland.pdf
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Marker
L. L. 2002
Aspects
of Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) Biology, Ecology,
Conservation Strategies on Namibian Farmland
In
an increasingly human-dominated environment, the task
of successfully conserving large carnivores, such as
cheetahs, is difficult due to real or perceived threats
resulting in conflict and often their local extirpation.
This research describes the causes and potential solutions
to this conflict in Namibia. Cheetah biology and ecology
were studied through physical examination, laboratory
analysis, radio-tracking and human perceptions using
survey techniques. Between 1991 and 2000 data were collected
on over 400 live-captured and dead cheetahs.
PhD,
Universtiy of Oxford, UK
516
pp.
Marker_2002_Cheetah_conservation_on_Namibian_farmland.pdf
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Marnewick K.,
Funston PJ and Karanth KU 2008. Evaluating camera trapping as
a method for estimating cheetah abundance in ranching areas.
South African Journal of Wildlife Research 38(1): 59-65.
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In order to accurately assess
the status of the cheetah Acinonyx jubatus it is necessary to
obtain data on numbers and demographic trends. However, cheetahs
are notoriously difficult to survey because they occur at very
low population densities and are often shy and elusive. In South
Africa the problem is further complicated in areas where land
is privately owned, restricting access, with dense bush and
cheetahs that are frequently persecuted. Cheetahs are individually
identifiable by their unique spot patterns, making them ideal
candidates for capture-recapture surveys. Photographs of cheetahs
were obtained using four camera traps placed successively at
a total of 12 trap locations in areas of known cheetah activity
within a 300 km² area in the Thabazimbi district of the
Limpopo Province. During 10 trapping periods, five different
cheetahs were photographed. These results were used to generate
capture histories for each cheetah and the data were analysed
using the capture-recapture software package CAPTURE. Closure
tests indicated that the population was closed (P = 0.056).
The Mh model was used to deal with possible heterogeneous capture
probabilities among individual cheetahs. Closure tests did not
reject the model assumption of population closure (P = 0.056).The
Mh model produced a capture probability of 0.17 with an estimate
of 6-14 cheetahs (P = 0.95) and a mean population size of seven
cheetahs (S.E. = 1.93). These results are promising and will
be improved with employment of more camera traps and sampling
a larger area.
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Marnewick_et_al_2008_Camera_trapping_as_method_for_estimating_cheetah_abundance.pdf
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Mills MGL, Broomhall LS, du Toit JT. 2004. Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus feeding ecology in the Kruger National
Park and a comparison across Africa savanna habitats: is the cheetah only a
successful hunter on open grassland plains? Wildlife Biology 10(3):177-86.
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The literature on cheetah Acinonyx
jubatus ecology is dominated by studies on the Serengeti Plains (SNP) in
East Africa. Because of this and the cheetah's hunting strategy it is generally
considered to be a predator that prefers open grassland plains. However,
cheetahs also inhabit a range of bush, scrub and woodland habitats. A field study
using direct observations of radio-collared individuals in the woodland savanna
habitat of the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa, and a literature
review of studies across savanna habitats examined cheetah predation, hunting
behaviour and habitat use in relation to prey composition, cover availability
and kleptoparasitism. The cheetah's main prey is medium-sized herbivores, with
a bias towards male prey. The group size and sex of the hunting cheetah may
influence the results of prey selection studies as male coalitions tend to take
larger prey than females. Cheetahs initiated more hunts and had a higher
success rate in the open woodland savanna of the KNP compared to other
available habitats with thicker bush, and in other wooded savanna areas they also
prefer more open habitat for hunting.
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Mills_et_al_2004_Cheetah_feeding_ecology_in_Kruger_NP.pdf
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Morsbach D. The Behaviour, Ecology and Movements of
Cheetah on the Farm Areas of SWA/Namibia.
1-30. 1986. 1986.
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The document is the progress
report of the research project on the behaviour, ecology and movements of the
cheetah on farm areas in Namibia for the period between November 1985 to
October 1986. Estimation of the number of cheetahs on farmlands, based on basic
information on the species' movements and density, is between 2000 and 3000,
remarkably less than the number of about 6000 that was estimated through
questionnaires and personal communications. From this study it was found that
the average loss of cattle due to cheetah predation is three to four calves per
farm per year. The few farmers which actually did keep good written records of
all calf births and mortalities, had almost always much less losses due to
predation by cheetahs. Recommendations include the increase of the cheetah's
economic value for farmers, the establishment of reservoir areas that must
include a number of farms and where the farmers must agree that a calf loss of
3 to 4 calves a year is acceptable, and an intensive, fulltime study to make an
accurate conclusion of the stock losses. Annexes figures of the movements of
the studied cheetahs are given, as well as tables indicating their home range
area estimations, stock losses on farms, and departmental permit records for
the cheetah between 1980 to 1986.
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Morsbach_1986_Cheetahs_on_farms_areas_of_Namibia.pdf
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Oliver LJ, Morgan BJT, Durant SM,
Pettorelli N. 2011. Individual heterogeneity in recapture probability
and survival estimates in cheetah. Ecological Modelling 222, 776-784. |
Accurate estimates of demographic
parameters are key for understanding and predicting population
dynamics and for providing insights for effective wildlife management.
Up until recently, no suitable methodology has been available
to estimate survival probabilities of species with asynchronous
reproduction and a high level of individual variation in capture
probabilities. The present work develops a capture-mark-recapture
model for cheetahs in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania,
which (a) deals with continuous reproduction, (b) takes into
account the high level of individual heterogeneity in capture
probabilities and (c) is spatially explicit. Results show that
(1) our approach, which is an extensive modification of the
Cormack-Jolly-Seber model, provides a lower female adult survival
estimate and a higher male adolescent survival estimate than
previous approaches to estimate cheetah survival in the area,
(2) using sighting location alone is not sufficient to capture
the individual variation in resighting probabilities for both
sexes, and (3) precision in estimated survival probabilities
is generally increased. Species which are individually recognizable,
wide-ranging and/or where individuals differ substantially in
sightability are particularly appropriate to our modelling approach,
and our methodology would thus be appropriate for a wide number
of species to provide more accurate estimates of survival.
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Oliver_et_al_2011_Recapture_probability_and_survival_in_cheetah.pdf
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Pettifer HL. 1981. The ecology
of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) on the Suikerboard Nature
Reserve. Conference proceeding 27 p.
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Cheetah were relocated to the
Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve between 1975 and 1976. A rapid increase in cheetah
numbers with simultaneous declines in certain ungulate species warranted
intensive management-oriented research. Social grouping, population dynamics
and prey selection of cheetahs are briefly discussed. Home ranges are shown to
overlap considerably, although an effective spacing system is in operation.
Home range size appears to depend largely upon social dominance and possibly
territoriality. |
Pettifer_1981_The_Ecology_of_the_Cheetah_on_the_Suikerbosrand_Nature_Reserve.pdf
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Pettorelli N. and Durant SM. 2007.
Longevity in cheetahs: the key to success? Oikos 116, 1879-1886. |
An understanding of the factors
governing reproductive success has fundamental implications
for population demography, conservation, selection and adaptation.
Although a consistent positive correlation between lifetime
reproductive success and longevity has been reported for many
iteroparous organisms, few studies have explored how longevity
influences annual individual performance. In this study we show
(1) that longevity and lifetime reproductive success are positively
but not linearly correlated, (2) that short-lived individuals
have higher annual reproductive success, (3) that the generally
lower success of the last breeding occasion increased with females
'longevity, and (4) that long-lived females have higher chances
of rearing long-lived females. We suggest that experience and
the increase in the number of reproductive events with longevity
are key processes leading to a strong correlation between (1)
lifetime reproductive success and longevity and (2) mother and
daughter longevities. Our results demonstrate the importance
of long term studies that follow multiple generations in gaining
a full understanding of the factors affecting reproductive success.
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Pettorelli_&_Durant_2007_Longevity_in_cheetahs.pdf
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Pettorelli N, Hilborn A, Broekhuis
F, Durant SM. 2008. Exploring habitat use by cheetahs using
ecological niche factor analysis. J. Zool., Lond. 277, 141-148.
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Understanding the basis of habitat
choice having important implications for explaining the distribution
of organisms, as well as helping to differentiate between habitats
of different quality for effective management. In this study,
the effects of sex, age and reproductive status on habitat use
patterns of cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus in the Serengeti plains
were explored using Ecological Niche Factor Analysis (ENFA).
Our results showed that gender and territoriality did not affect
patterns of habitat use. However, females tended to be more
specialized when they were young than when they were older,
displaying a more restricted ecological niche. Likewise, older
females without cubs were more specialized than the same adult
females with young cubs. This result did not hold for younger
females. Altogether, the ENFA approach allowed us to (1) use
the large amount of incidental sighting data collected over
12 years on cheetah spatial distribution; (2) identify the importance
of reproductive status and age on the relationship between animals
and their habitat; (3) further demonstrate that ENFA is applicable
in a wide range of situations, including for exploring individual
variation in niche definition.
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Pettorelli_et_al_2008_Habitat_use_by_cheetah_using_ENFA.pdf
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Sinclair ARE, Mduma S,
Brashares JS. 2003. Patterns of predation in a diverse predator-prey system.
Nature 425:288-90.
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There are many cases where
animal populations are affected by predators and resources in terrestrial
ecosystems, but the factors that determine when one or the other predominates
remain poorly understood. Here we show, using 40 years of data from the highly
diverse mammal community of the Serengeti ecosystem, East Africa, that the
primary cause of mortality for adults of a particular species is determined by
two factors-the species diversity of both the predators and prey and the body
size of that prey species relative to other prey and predators. Small ungulates
in Serengeti are exposed to more predators, owing to opportunistic predation,
than are larger ungulates; they also suffer greater predation rates, and
experience strong predation pressure. A threshold occurs at prey body sizes of ~150 kg, above which ungulate species have
few natural predators and exhibit food limitation. Thus, biodiversity allows
both predation (top-down) and resource limitation (bottom-up) to act
simultaneously to affect herbivore populations. This result may apply generally
in systems where there is a diversity of predators and prey.
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Sinclair_et_al_2003_Patterns_of_predation.pdf
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Stander PE. 1996. Basic
ecological parameters and management constraints of lions and cheetahs in
Bushmanland and Daudom Game Reserve, Namibia.
Report, 8 p.
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This report discusses basic
ecology, biology and behaviour related to the habits of mainly lions in Namibia
with some notes on cheetahs, and where possible compares the results with data
from elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa. The densities of cheetahs are low for
both Bushmanland (0.1-0.14/100km2) and Kalahari Gemsbok National Park
(0.05-0.07/100km2). Observation on marked cheetahs gives strong suggestions
that the species is resident all year round, utilizing enormous home ranges.
The cheetah, which normally occur at low densities, are particularly
susceptible to fragmentation of continuous habitat and need large
"protected" areas that can support the long-term survival of entire
large mammal communities.
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Stander_1996_Ecology_and_conservation_of_lions_and_cheetahs_in_Namibia.pdf
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Thorn M, Green M, Keith M, Marnewick K,
Bateman PW, Cameron EZ, Scott DM. 2011. Large-scale
distribution patterns of carnivores in northern South Africa: implications for
conservation and monitoring. Oryx 45, 579-586. |
Accurate assessment of carnivore
population status is frequently hindered by insufficient distribution
data. For northern South Africa we address this deficit by mapping
new records from landscape-scale sign surveys, questionnaire
interviews, problem animal records and camera trapping. The
black-backed jackal Canis mesomelas and caracal Caracal caracal
remain common and widespread. Ranges of the serval Leptailurus
serval and brown hyaena Hyaena brunnea were much larger than
previous estimates, reducing the risk of simultaneous extirpation
across all occupied locations. The proportion of range area
occupied was larger for several species, notably the leopard
Panthera pardus, cheetah Acinonyx jubatus and serval. We conclude
that the serval continues to recover from historical threats
and is expanding into new areas. A larger brown hyaena range
and less fragmented pattern of occurrence probably confers greater
resilience to threats than was suggested by previous data. Reduced
extinction risk arising from the increased area occupied by
the cheetah and leopard is tempered by probable local range
contraction. Our maps provide baseline information for monitoring
the distribution of these six species, which is essential in
managing ecological issues that have a spatial component such
as responses to changing land use. Our results also demonstrate
the utility of detection/nondetection surveys in rapid assessment
of carnivore populations at large spatial scales.
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Thorn_et_al_2011_Distribution_patterns_of_carnivores_in_northern_South_Africa.pdf
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