Ecology — Ecologie — Ekologia — Ecologia

Bissett C. 2005

The feeding ecology, habitat selection and hunting behaviour of re-introduced cheetah on Kwandwe Private Game Reserve, Eastern Cape Province

 

The re-introduction of cheetah onto small reserves in the Eastern Cape Province has created the opportunity to study this species in an environment (Valley Bushveld) in which it has not previously been studied. Thus the aim of this study is to add to the studies of cheetah in more wooded habitats and to contribute a better understanding of the level of specialization or adaptability in space use, habitat selection, diet and hunting behaviour that the cheetah possesses.

 

M.Sc., Rhodes University, South Africa

166 pp.

Bissett_2005_Cheetahs_in_Kwandwe_Game_Reserve.pdf


 

Bissett C. and Bernard RTF. 2006. Habitat selection and feeding ecology of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) in thicket vegetation: is the cheetah a savanna specialist? J. Zool., Lond. 271, 310-317.

Habitat selection and feeding ecology of a reintroduced population of cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus were studied in a 16 000 ha game reserve in the Eastern Cape Province (South Africa). Seventy per cent of the reserve is characterized by very dense thicket vegetation (valley bushveld) and the remainder is open and savannalike. The results illustrated a strong effect of sex and group size on the behavior of cheetahs. The coalition (three adult males) killed significantly larger animals (55% of kills weighed more than 65 kg) than single female cheetahs (less than 2% of kills weighed more than 65 kg). Female cheetahs showed temporal and spatial avoidance of lions by hunting at dawn and dusk and positioning their home ranges [95% utilization distribution (UDs)] significantly farther from the pride of lions than did the coalition. The coalition hunted earlier and later than female cheetahs, and 46% of their kills were made in darkness. In addition, their home range overlapped that of the lions and they showed neither temporal nor spatial avoidance of the lions. The rates of kleptoparasitism were lower and the kill retention times were longer than those reported elsewhere in Africa, and it is suggested that this is a consequence of the cover provided by the thicket vegetation and prey size. The home ranges (95% UDs) of female cheetahs incorporated more thicket vegetation than that of the coalition, indicating that the coalition is less susceptible to predation than single females. These data suggest that cheetahs possess greater behavioural flexibility than previously reported, that they can hunt successfully in thicket vegetation, sometimes in darkness, that they are not restricted to killing small to medium-sized prey, and that they may not be savanna specialists.

Bissett_&_Bernard_2006_Habitat_selection_and_feeding_ecology_of_cheetah_in_thicket_vegetation.pdf


Broekhuis F. 2007

Habitat selection patterns of cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus in the Serengeti, Tanzania

 

The Serengeti Cheetah Project in Tanzania has collected a substantial amount of uninterrupted tracking data, providing the perfect opportunity to test whether initial sightings are indeed characteristic of the habitat that is selected.

 

 

M.Sc., University of London

47 pp.

Broekhuis_2007_Cheetah_habitat_selection_in_the_Serengeti.pdf


 

Castro-Prieto A, Watcher B, Sommer S. 2011. Cheetah Paradigm Revisited: MHC Diversity in the World's Largest Free-Ranging Population. Molecular Biology and Evolution : 1455-1468.

For more than two decades, the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus)  has been considered a paradigm of disease vulnerability associated with low  genetic diversity, particularly at the immune genes of the major  histocompatibility complex (MHC). Cheetahs have been used as a  classic example in numerous conservation genetics textbooks as well  as in many related scientific publications. However, earlier studies  used methods with low resolution to quantify MHC diversity and/or  small sample sizes. Furthermore, high disease susceptibility was  reported only for captive cheetahs, whereas free-ranging cheetahs  show no signs of infectious diseases and a good general health status.  We examined whether the diversity at MHC class I and class II-DRB  loci in 149 Namibian cheetahs was higher than previously reported  using single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis, cloning, and  sequencing. MHC genes were examined at the genomic and transcriptomic levels. We detected ten MHC class I and four class II- DRB alleles, of which nine MHC class I and all class IIDRB alleles  were expressed. Phylogenetic analyses and individual genotypes  suggested that the alleles belong to four MHC class I and three class  II-DRB putative loci. Evidence of positive selection was detected in both  MHC loci. Our study indicated that the low number of MHC class I  alleles previously observed in cheetahs was due to a smaller sample  size examined. On the other hand, the low number of MHC class II- DRB alleles previously observed in cheetahs was further confirmed.  Compared with other mammalian species including felids, cheetahs  showed low levels of MHC diversity, but this does not seem to  influence the immunocompetence of free-ranging cheetahs in Namibia  and contradicts the previous conclusion that the cheetah is a paradigm species of disease vulnerability.

Castro-Prieto_et_2011_Cheetah_paradigm_revisited-MHC_diversity.pdf


 

Cooper AB, Pettorelli N, Durant SM. 2007. Large carnivore menus: factors affecting hunting decisions by cheetahs in the Serengeti. Animal Behaviour 73, 651-659.
Predation plays a key role in shaping mammalian communities through prey killed and through the decisions and choices of both predators and prey. We used an extensive data set from observed hunts of a diurnal large African carnivore, the cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus, in combination with analysis techniques originally developed in the field of economics (discrete choice models) to examine predation decisions within the context of the immediate environment and the reproductive and hunger status of individuals. This is one of the first attempts at an integrated understanding of the suite of ecological and behavioural factors that influence hunting decisions in a large carnivore. The decision of a cheetah to hunt or not was influenced by the abundance of their main prey, the reproductive status of the cheetah and the presence of competitors and predators, but not by the hunger level of the cheetah. Given that the decision to hunt is taken, prey choice is then driven by the time of year, the sex of the predator, the abundance of prey and the presence of competitors. We believe that discrete choice models may provide a new step forward in our ability to understand the decisions that animals make in their natural environment.

Cooper_et_al_2007_Hunting_decision_by_cheetahs_in_the_Serengeti.pdf


 

Dalerum F, Somers MJ, Kunkel KE and Cameron EZ. 2008. The potential for large carnivores to act as biodiversity surrogates in southern Africa. Biodiversity and Conservation 17, 2939-2949.

Biodiversity in southern Africa is globally extraordinary but threatened by human activities. Although there are considerable biodiversity conservation initiatives within the region, no one has yet assessed the potential use of large carnivores in such actions. Surrogate approaches have often been suggested as one such way of capitalizing on large carnivores. Here we review the suitability of the large carnivore guild (i.e., brown hyaena Hyaena hyaena, spotted hyaena Crocuta crocutta, cheetah Acinonyx jubatus, leopard Panthera pardus, lion Panthea leo and African wild dog Lycaon pictus) to act as surrogate species for biodiversity conservation in southern Africa. We suggest that the guild must be complete for the large carnivores to fully provide their role as ecological keystones. The potential for large carnivores to act as umbrella and indicator species seems limited. However, self-sustaining populations of large carnivores may be useful indicators of unfragmented landscapes. Moreover, diversity within the large carnivore guild may reflect overall biodiversity. Although the global appeal of the large African carnivores makes them important international flagships, we stress that international conservation funding must be linked to local communities for them to be important also locally. In summary, we suggest that the flagship value of these large carnivores should be used to promote biodiversity conservation in the region, and that the suggested relationship between large carnivore diversity and overall biodiversity is empirically tested. Finally we suggest that direct conservation activities should focus on enhancing the keystone values of large carnivores through complete guild conservation and restoration.

Dalerum_et_al_2008_Large_carnivores_as_biodiversity_surrogates_in_southern_Africa.pdf


 

Durant SM, Craft ME, Hilborn R, Bashir S, Hando J, Thomas L. 2011. Long-term trends in carnivore abundance using distance sampling in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Journal of applied Ecology 48, 1490-1500.

1. Carnivores can have critical impacts on ecosystems, provide economic value through tourism and are often important flagships. However, their biological traits (e.g. low density, cryptic colouration and behaviour) make them difficult to monitor and hence wildlife managers rarely have access to reliable information on population trends, and long-term information at the community level is almost completely lacking.

2. We use data from transect counts in the Serengeti ecosystem in Tanzania to examine trends in abundance for seven co-existing carnivore species. Distance-based transect counts between 2002 and 2005 are compared with adjusted data from fixed-width transect counts across the same area in 1977 and 1986.

3. Distance-based methods provided density indices for the seven most commonly seen carnivores: lion Panthera leo, spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta, golden jackal Canis aureus, black-backed jackal Canis mesomelas, cheetah Acinonyx jubatus, side-striped jackal Canis audustis and bat-eared fox Otocyon megalotis. Detection curves were used to correct estimates fromearlier fixed-width transect counts.

4. Trend analyses detected significant declines in densities of golden and black-backed jackal and bat-eared fox, but found no significant changes in spotted hyaena, lion, cheetah and side-striped jackal.

5. Overall, despite wide confidence intervals, we show that distance-based data can be used effectively to detect long-term trends and provide critical information for conservation managers. Power analysis demonstrated that for the most frequently seen species, spotted hyaena, golden jackal and lion, abrupt declines of up to 20% may be detectable through long-term monitoring; however, for the remaining species, declines of 50%may only be detected half the time.

6. Synthesis and applications. Distance methods provide a tool for rapid counts and monitoring of several species of carnivores simultaneously in suitable habitats and can be combined with historical fixed-width transect counts to test for changes in density. The method can provide key information to managers on long-term population trends and sudden abrupt changes in population size across a carnivore community.

Durant_et_al_2011_Long_term_trends_in_carnivore_abundance_in_the_Serengeti.pdf


 

Eaton RL. 1974. Ecology. In The Cheetah - The biology, ecology, and behavior of an endangered species.Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New York. Pp 41-87.

The sex ratio among adults in the two observed areas Nairobi National Park and Amboslie Game Reserve was about 2:1, in the litters 1:1.
In Nairobi National Park, impala, Grant's gazelle, kongoni and waterbuck occur most frequently in the cheetah's diet. 12 of 30 aged kills were adults, 18 juveniles. Details on group size while hunting and of the herd size of the hunted species, prey selection, the cheetah's energy budget and the interaction of cheetahs with other species are presented.

Eaton_1974_The_cheetah_3_Ecology.pdf


 

Eaton RL. 1974. Predatory and Killing Behavior. In The Cheetah - The biology, ecology, and behavior of an endangered species.Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New York. Pp. 129-145.

Detailed description of hunting and killing behavior. Cheetahs seldom crouches like most cats. It walks along slowly, looking for game. The "crouch" aspect of predatory behavior in the cheetah is modified to a state of alertness that requires holding the head high and remaining motionless enough to maintain visual contact with the prey. The cheetah knocks over the fleeing prey. The ontogeny of killing behavior was observed with a litter of four cubs and the mother.

Eaton_1974_The_cheetah_7_Predation.pdf


 

Farhadinia MS, Hemami M-R. 2010. Prey selection by the critically endangered Asiatic cheetah in central Iran. Journal of Natural History 44(19-20):1239-49.
The presence of the critically endangered Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) has been verified in several protected areas in central Iran. Prey selection by the Asiatic cheetah was studied in Dare-Anjir Wildlife Refuge, one of its typical habitats in central Iran where there are no carnivorous competitors. The frequency of cheetah kills was compared with the relative abundance of each of its primary prey species obtained through two independent surveys. Jebeer gazelle (Gazella bennettii) was least abundant, but was the preferred prey of cheetah, whereas wild sheep (Ovis orientalis) followed by Persian ibex (Capra aegagrus) were the most frequently killed prey. Cheetahs selectively preyed on males of the three prey species. Our data suggest that Asiatic cheetahs prey mainly on mountain ungulates (wild sheep and Persian ibex), which has management implications for effective conservation of this taxon in Iran.

Farhadinia_&_Hemami_2010_Prey_selection_by_cheetah_in_Iran.pdf


 

Frame GW, Herbison Frame L. 1976. Population study of cheetahs and wild dogs.  Serengeti Research Institute Annual Report 1974-5. pp. 129-138. Serengeti Research Institute, Tanzania.

Cheetahs (Acinomyx jubatus) and African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) are being studied in the Serengeti National Park and adjacent areas. The purpose of the research is to determine the size and trend of their populations, and to describe the extent of their movements and their ecological requirements. The ultimate objective is to formulate management recommendations for preserving cheetahs and wild dogs within the artificial confines of the park's boundaries. The cheetah population within the Serengeti ecosystem is probably in excess of 250. The high recruitment of young cheetahs into the population indicates either an expanding population or a stable population with high adult mortality. Individual cheetahs are identified by means of a photographic recognition file, which is based on the unique spot pattern on the face of every cheetah. Movements are being studied with respect to season and the availability of prey, water and cover. The maximum known migration distance for adult male and female cheetahs is 40 km. for each. The minimum dry season density of cheetahs around Seronera is about one cheetah per 3 km2.

Frame_&_Herbison_Frame_1976_Population_study_of_cheetahs_and_wild_dogs.pdf


 

Frame GW. 1976. Cheetah Biology and behaviour.
In Annual Report 1974-75 of the Serengeti Research Insitute, Arusha, Tanzania. Pp. 74-87.

The status of cheetah in the Serengeti ecosystem is considered good, with an estimated population of at least 500. The secrecy of most cheetahs accounts for the apparent scarcity. In the dry season cheetahs concentrate along the woodland edge, and around Seronera, where the density becomes one cheetah per 3 km2. - the highest known density of wild cheetahs anywhere in Africa. Optimum habitat is lightly wooded or bushed grassland. Cover is very important for hunting, protection, and shade. Cheetahs prey on whatever is abundant, small, and easily caught; at Seronera this is mainly Thomson's gazelle. Various aspects of behaviour are being studied; these are grouping, spacing, courtship, and development of cub play. Aspects of tourist viewing and management are discussed.

Frame_1976_Cheetah_biology_and_behaviour.pdf


 

Ghosh G. 2009. Evaluating prospects of reintroducing cheetahs (Aciononyx jubatus) in Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary. Tigerpaper 36, 24-28.
India's conservation outlook and efforts would be better served if the cheetah was reintroduced into India, mainly because of the amount of potential revenue that such an undertaking would generate, through ecotourism. This paper evaluates the deciduous thorn forest encompassing Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary as a possible reintroduction site. This area was selected because it has a large area, the density of human habitations is low, and it was a part of the historical range of the cheetah. The study area also does not have a high density population of large carnivores. The study area was analyzed through a population habitat viability analysis of primary data collected on Kuno by line transect surveys and demographic parameters of the cheetah, obtained from a review of literature of various studies on the cheetah.

Ghosh_2009_Evaluating_cheetah_reintroduction_into_Kuno_wildlife_sanctuary.pdf


 

Hayward MW, Hofmeyr M, O'Brien JO, Kerley GIH. 2006. Prey preferences of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) (Felidae:Carnivora): morphological limitations or the need to capture rapidly consumable prey before kleptoparasites arrive? J. Zool., Lond. 270, 615-627.

As a charismatic carnivore that is vulnerable to extinction, many studies have been conducted on predation by the cheetah Acinonyx jubatus. Cheetah are generally considered to capture medium-sized prey; however, which species are actually preferred and why has yet to be addressed. We used data from 21 published and two unpublished studies from six countries throughout the distribution of the cheetah to determine which prey species were preferred and which were avoided using Jacobs' index. The mean Jacobs' index value for each prey species was used as the dependent variable in multiple regression, with prey abundance and prey body mass as predictive variables. Cheetah prefer to kill and actually kill the most available prey present at a site within a body mass range of 23-56 kg with a peak (mode) at 36 kg. Blesbok, impala, Thomson's and Grant's gazelles, and springbok are significantly preferred, whereas prey outside this range are generally avoided. The morphological adaptations of the cheetah appear to have evolved to capture medium-sized prey that can be subdued with minimal risk of injury. Coincidentally, these species can be consumed rapidly before kleptoparasites arrive. These results are discussed through the premise of optimality theory whereby decisions made by the predator maximize the net energetic benefits of foraging. Information is also presented that allows conservation managers to determine which prey species should be in adequate numbers at cheetah reintroduction sites to support a cheetah population. Conversely, these results will illustrate which potential prey species of local conservation concern should be monitored for impact from cheetahs as several species are likely to be preyed upon more frequently than others.

Hayward_et_al_2006_Prey_preferences_of_the_cheetah.pdf


 

Hayward MW, Adendorff J, O'Brien J, Sholto-Douglas A, Bissett C, Moolman LC, Bean P, Fogarty A, Howarth D, Slater R, Kerley GIH. 2007. Practical Considerations for the Reintroduction of Large, Terrestrial, Mammalian Predators Based on Reintroductions to South Africa`s Eastern Cape Province. The Open Conservation Biology Journal 1:1-11.

The expansion of conservation estate in South Africa has seen large predators increasingly reintroduced in order to restore ecological integrity, conserve threatened species and maximise tourism. Reintroductions occurred at fenced, ecotourism sites in South Africa's Eastern Cape Province. Lion Panthera leo reintroduction began in 2000 and has been highly successful with a population of 56 currently extant in the region arising from 35 reintroduced individuals. The African wild dog Lycaon pictus population has increased to 24 from a founder population of 11. Reintroduction of spotted hyaenas Crocuta crocuta also appears successful, although reintroductions of leopards Panthera pardus and cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus have been less successful. Here we review the successes and failures of the reintroductions that have occurred in the region and describe recommendations to assist future translocations. Ecological attributes of each species affected the success with which they were reintroduced. Soft-release techniques, adequate fencing, appropriate socioeconomic environment, the order of predator reintroduction with subordinate species released prior to dominant ones, adequate prey base and adequate monitoring all improved the success of reintroductions. Carrying capacity for large predators is unknown and continued monitoring and, we fear, intensive management will be necessary in virtually all modern day conservation areas.

Hayward_et_al_2007_Assessment_of_large_carnivore_reintroduction_to_the_Eastern_Cape.pdf


 

Hayward MW, O'Brien J, Kerley GIH. 2007. Carrying capacity of large African predators: predictions and tests. Biological Conservation 139, 219-229.
Successful conservation initiatives often lead to rapid increases in large carnivore densities to the extent that overpopulation occurs. Yet conservation managers have no way of knowing the carrying capacity of their reserves. Here we derived relationships between the preferred prey (species and weight range) of Africa's large predator guild and their population densities to predict their carrying capacity in ten South African conservation areas. Conservation managers intervened at several of these sites because of evidence of predator overpopulation and these provided independent tests of our predictions. Highly significant linear relationships were found between the biomass of the preferred prey species of lion, leopard, spotted hyaena and African wild dog, and the biomass of prey in the preferred weight range of cheetah. These relationships are more robust than previous work for lion, cheetah and leopard, and novel for spotted hyaena and African wild dog. These relationships predicted that several predators exceeded carrying capacity at four sites, two where managers expressed concerns about overpopulation due to a decline in wildlife abundance and two where carnivores were actively removed. The ability to predict the carrying capacity of large predators is fundamental to their conservation, particularly in small enclosed reserves. Every predator that preys on large, readily surveyed wildlife can have its carrying capacity predicted in this manner based on the abundance of its preferred prey. This will be beneficial for reintroduction attempts, threatened species management, overpopulation estimation, detecting poaching and in investigating intra-guild competition.

Hayward_et_al_2007_Carrying_capacity_of_large_African_predators.pdf


 

Hayward MW, Adendorff J, O'Brien J, Sholto-Douglas A, Bissett C, Moolman LC, Bean P, Fogarty A, Howarth D, Slater R, Kerley GIH. 2007. The reintroduction of large carnivores to the Eastern Cape, South Africa: an assessment. Oryx 41, 205-214.

Recently, conservation estate in South Africa's Eastern Cape Province has increased 10-fold resulting in large predators being increasingly reintroduced to restore ecological integrity and maximize tourism. We describe the reintroductions of large carnivores (>10 kg) that have occurred in the Eastern Cape and use various criteria to assess their success. Lion Panthera leo reintroduction has been highly successful with a population of 56 currently extant in the region and problems of overpopulation arising. The African wild dog Lycaon pictus population has increased to 24 from a founder population of 11. Preliminary results for spotted hyaenas Crocuta crocuta  also indicate success. Wild populations of leopards Panthera pardus exist on several reserves and have been supplemented by translocated individuals, although deaths of known individuals have occurred and no estimate of reproduction is available. Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus  reintroduction has also been less successful with 36 individuals reintroduced and 23 cubs being born but only 41 individuals surviving in 2005. Criteria for assessing the success of reintroductions of species that naturally occur in low densities, such as top predators, generally have limited value. Carrying capacity for large predators is unknown and continued monitoring and intensive management will be necessary in enclosed, and possibly all, conservation areas in the Eastern Cape to ensure conservation success.

Hayward_et_al_2007_Practical_considerations_for_the_reintroduction_of_large_predators.pdf


 

Houser A, Somers MJ, Boast LK. 2009. Home range use of free-ranging cheetah on farm and conservation land in Botswana. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 39(1):11-22.
Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) movements should be considered when developing management strategies for long-term survival and coexistence with humans. Although work has been done in Namibia, South Africa and Tanzania little data on the home range and territory size of cheetah in Botswana has been published. This study aimed to estimate male and female home range sizes and dailymovement on farmland and a game reserve in Botswana. Cheetahs were monitored from October 2003 to April 2007. The cheetah were fitted with cell/GPS or VHF collars and released back into their home range. Single male home ranges were 494 km2 and 663 km2 and a coalition of two males had a home range of 849 km2 (fixed kernel method). The females'home ranges were 241 km2 and 306 km2 (fixed kernel method). Females travelled a mean distance of 2.16 ± 0.07 km/day (range; 0-20 km/day) compared to 6.13 ± 0.30 km/day (range; 0-39 km/day) in males. Female maximum daily travel increased from 4.17 km/day when cubs where in the den to 8.16 km/day when cubs had left the den.

Houser_et_al_2009_Home_range_of_cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf


Houser AM, Somers MJ, Boast LK. 2010. Spoor density as a measure of true density of a known population of free-ranging wild cheetah in Botswana. J Zool ,Lond 278:108-115.
Knowledge of the abundance of animal populations is essential for their management and onservation. Determining reliable measures of abundance is, however, difficult, especially with wide-ranging species such as cheetah Acinonyx jubatus. This study generated a correction factor to calculate true cheetah density from spoor survey data and subsequently tested its accuracy using the following season's data. Data were collected from October 2005 to December 2006 on a known population of wild, free-ranging cheetah in the Jwana Game Reserve, Botswana. The cheetahs in the area were captured, tagged and hotographed. The reserve was divided into twelve 9 km transects covering all vegetation types and prey densities. The total sampling distance was 8226 km, with a spoor density of 2.32 individual cheetah spoor per 100km2. To determine a precise and accurate spoor density, it was necessary to sample for a longer period during the dry season (April-September) than during the wet season (October-March). This difference may be due to cheetah behavioural changes with seasonal variations in habitat and prey. The true density was 5.23 cheetahs per 100km2 ranging from 3.33 to 7.78 at the low and high points of the population, respectively. A positive linear correlation between spoor and true density was observed. This relationship differed in the wet and dry season and required refinement with the following season's data. Correction factors may be viable, but require further testing taking the behavioural responses to seasonal, habitat and prey variations into consideration.

Houser_et_al_2009_Spoor_density_as_measure_of_true_density.pdf


 

Johnson S, Mengersen K, de Waal A, Marnewick K, Cilliers D, Houser AM, Boast LK. 2010. Modelling cheetah reloaction success in southern Africa using an Iterative Bayesian Network Development Cycle. Ecological Modelling 221:641-651.
Relocation is one of the strategies used by conservationists to deal with problem cheetahs in southern Africa. The success of a relocation event and the factors that influence it within the broader context of long-term viability of wild cheetah metapopulations was the focus of a Bayesian Network (BN) modelling workshop in South Africa. Using a new heuristics, Iterative Bayesian Network Development Cycle (IBNDC), described in this paper, several networks were formulated to distinguish between the unique relocation experiences and conditions in Botswana and South Africa. There were many common underlying factors, despite the disparate relocation strategies and sites in the two countries. The benefit of relocation BNs goes beyond the identification and quantification of the factors influencing the success of relocations and population viability. They equip conservationists with a powerful communication tool in their negotiations with land and livestock owners, which is key to the long-term survival of cheetahs in southern Africa. Importantly, the IBNDC provides the ecological modeller with a methodological process that combines several BN design frameworks to facilitate the development of a BN in a multi-expert and multi-field domain.

Johnson_et_al_2010_Modelling_cheetah_relocation_success_in_Southern_Africa.pdf


 

Jule KR, Leaver LA and Lea SEG. 2008. The effects of captive experience in reintroduction survival in carnivores: a review and analysis. Biol. Conserv. 141, 355-363.

This review focuses on the success and survivorship of captive-born versus wild-caught carnivores used in reintroductions. Previous reviews have suggested that reintroduction projects using captive-born animals are less likely to be successful than projects translocating wild-caught animals. The purpose of this paper is to examine this statistically and investigate how captivity may affect the survival of reintroduced carnivores. We examined results published in previous reviews, and found evidence to support that reintroduction projects using wild-caught animals are significantly more likely to succeed than projects using captive-born animals. We further compiled our own review of 45 case studies in carnivore reintroduction projects (in 17 species across 5 families) to investigate survival rates rather than overall project 'success'. We found that (1) wild-caught carnivores are significantly more likely to survive than captive-born carnivores in reintroductions; (2) that humans were the direct cause of death in over 50% of all fatalities and (3) that reintroduced captive-born carnivores are particularly susceptible to starvation, unsuccessful predator/competitor avoidance and disease.

Jule_et_al_2008_Effect_of_captive_experience_on_reintroduction_success_of_carnivores.pdf


Kelly M. 2001. Serengeti cheetah viability and the lion factor. Cat News 34:28-9.

Serengeti cheetahs are well protected from poaching inside Serengeti National Park, but 70% of cheetah cubs are killed by other predators, mainly lions. Within the National Park it is likely that adult survival will remain high while juvenile survival will fluctuate depending on predation pressure. At low lion density, the cheetah population has a very low risk of extinction. Recently, lions did suffer an extreme population decline on the plains by canine distemper. Currently, however, the lion population is rebounding dramatically. What do you do when one endangered species is killing off another in your very large reserve?

Kelly_2001_Serengeti_Cheetah_Viability_and_Lion_Factor_CatNews_34.pdf


 

Kelly MJ, Laurenson MK, FitzGibbon CD, Collins DA, Durant SM, Frame GW, Bertram BCR, Caro TM. 1998. Demography of the Serengeti cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) population: the first 25 years. J Zool , Lond 244:473-88.

Data are presented on the demography and reproductive success of cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) living on the Serengeti Plains, Tanzania over a 25-year period. Average age at independence was 17.1 months, females gave birth to their first litter at approximately 2.4 years old, interbirth interval was 20.1 months, and average litter size at independence was 2.1 cubs. Females who survived to independence lived on average 6.2 years while minimum male average longevity was 2.8 years for those born in the study area and 5.3 years for immigrants, with a large proportion of males dispersing out of the Plains population. Females produced on average only 1.7 cubs to independence in their entire lifetime and their average reproductive rates were 0.36 cubs per year or 0.17 litters per year to independence. Variance in lifetime reproductive success in the cheetah is similar to that of other mammals. No significant negative correlations were found between adult cheetah population size and numbers of cubs reaching independence, implying that the Plains population had not reached carrying capacity. Annual numbers of adult female cheetahs only were correlated with rainfall. Adult female cheetah numbers were not correlated with adult female lion numbers on the Plains, however, reproductive rates of cheetahs were negatively correlated with the presence of lions while cheetahs had cubs. Moreover, cheetah reproductive success was lower during the period of high lion abundance (1980±1994) than during the earlier period of relatively few lions (1969±1979).

Kelly_et_al_1998_Long-term_cheetah_demography.pdf


 

Kruuk H, Turner M. 1967. Comparative notes on predation by lion, leopard, cheetah and wild dog in the Serengeti area, East Africa. Mammalia 31:1-27.

Lions, leopards, cheetahs and wild dogs in the Serengeti area attack different prey size and use different hunting techniques. The diet can change according to the individual (in leopards) or sex (in lions). For lions, the number of hunted prey is a function of their size, however this is not true for hyenas. Thomson's gazelle represents the principal prey attacked by these predators, with the exception of the lion that prefer wildebeests, for that it is responsible of only 1.2% of its natural mortality.

Kruuk_&_Turner_-_Predation_in_the_Serengeti_area.pdf


 

Labuschagne,W.1981.Aspects of cheetah ecology in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park. Conference proceeding.

The Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, an area of almost 960'000 hectares, is situated in the north-western corner of the Cape Province. Twenty cheetah groups, comprising 43 individuals, were kept under observations for 115 days. They were followed for more than 1200 kilometres while information on their predator-prey relationship, territoriality and related ecology factors, was collected. It was found that not only did the sizes of prey species differ in relation to the cheetah's group sizes but so did the kill rates and the frequencies at which each group size would kill. During an experiment which lasted 25 days, 11 cheetahs consumed 51.9 per cent of carcasses offered, averaging a daily consumption of 3.8 kilograms per cheetah. On average, cheetahs travelled 12.3 kilometres every 24 hours, drank water once every 82 kilometres, urinated every 4.3 km and defecated 12 every kilometres travelled. The demarcated boundaries by urinating have been found to exceed 300 square metres in Gemsbok Park.

Labuschagnet_1981_Cheetah_ecology_in_the_Kalahari.pdf


Maddox T. M. 2003
The ecology of cheetahs and other large carnivores in a pastoralist-dominated buffer zone

Due to the various limitations of core-protected areas, interest in semi-protected landscapes and the human-wildlife interactions that occur within them is rapidly gaining credence. One of the most important issue in this field is the human-carnivore relationship, with many large carnivores globally threatened on one hand and the capability of potentially devastating impacts on humans on the other. In this thesis, the success of cheetahs, their competitors and their predators in two buffer zones (Loliondo and Ngorongoro) of the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania was examined in comparison with populations living inside the park. The potential role played in carnivore ecology by the Maasai pastoralists inhabiting the buffer zones was then examined to assess the extent to which their presence determines any of the differences. 

PhD Thesis Department of Anthropology, University College, London & Institute of Zoology, London, 373 pp.
Maddox_2003_Ecology_of_cheetahs_in_a_buffer_zone.pdf 


 

Lindsey P, Tambling CJ, Brummer R, Davies-Mostert H, Hayward M, Marnewick K, Parker D. 2011. Minimum prey and area requirements of the Vulnerable cheetah Acinonyx jubatus: implications for reintroduction and management of the species in South Africa. Oryx 45, 587-599.

In South Africa there are efforts to manage reintroduced subpopulations of the Vulnerable cheetah Acinonyx jubatus in small reserves (10-1,000 km2) as a managed metapopulation. We estimated areas required to support cheetahs given varying prey densities, prey profiles and presence/absence of competing predators. A recent population and habitat viability assessment indicated that 20 subpopulations of 10 cheetahs or 10 subpopulations of 15 cheetahs are required to retain 90% of the heterozygosity of free-ranging cheetahs and to overcome stochastic events in the absence or presence of lions Panthera leo, respectively. We estimate that 203 - SE 42 km2 (range 48-466 km2) is required to support 10 cheetahs in the absence of lions, whereas 703 - SE 311 km2 (166-2,806 km2) is required to support 15 cheetahs given equal numbers of lions, and 2,424 - SE 890 km2 (727-3,739 km2) given equal numbers of leopards Panthera pardus, spotted hyaenas Crocuta crocuta, wild dogs Lycaon pictus and lions. Existing subpopulations of cheetahs generally occur at densities higher than our mean predicted densities but usually within the range of predicted densities. The large area requirements of cheetahs have implications for the development of the managed metapopulation. Sourcing reintroduction sites of the sizes required to support recommended subpopulation sizes will be difficult. Consequently, innovative measures to increase the carrying capacity of reserves for cheetahs and/or to enlarge reserves will be required. Managers may be forced to stock cheetahs close to or beyond the carrying capacity of their reserves. Consequently, careful management of reintroduced subpopulations will be required to prevent declines in prey populations.

Lindsey_et_al_2011_Minimum_prey_and_area_requirements_of_cheetah_South_Africa.pdf


 

Marker L, Dickman A, Mills MGL, Jeo RM, MacDonald DW. 2008. Spatial ecology of cheetahs on north-central Namibian farmlands. J Zool, Lond 274, 226-238.
Knowledge of a species' ranging behaviour is both fundamental to understanding its behavioural ecology and a prerequisite to planning its management. Few data exist on the spatial ecology of cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus outside protected areas, but such areas are particularly important to their conservation. Cheetahs on Namibian farmlands occupied exceptionally large home ranges, averaging 1651km2 (1594km2), with no detectable effect of sex, social grouping or seasonality. Despite such large ranges, cheetahs tended to utilize intensively only a small fraction of that area: 50% of the fixes were located within an average of 13.95.3% of the home range. Ranges were not exclusive, overlapping on average by 15.817.0%, with male cheetahs showing more intra-sexual range overlap than did females. Coalitions of males appeared to select for a dense, prey-rich habitat, but this preference was not apparent for other social groupings. Conflict with humans is an important contributor to the species' decline, and these large, overlapping cheetah home ranges result in the movements of each individual cheetah encompassing many farms (21 based on the average home-range size). Consequently, many cheetahs may be exposed to a minority of farmers attempting to kill them, and also that many farmers may see the same cheetahs, thereby gaining an exaggerated impression of their abundance. Conservation priorities for cheetahs outside protected areas are the development of techniques for conflict resolution, as well as the maintenance and restoration of suitable habitat and promotion of land-management practices compatible with the continued existence of large carnivores.

Marker_et_al_2008_Spatial_ecology_of_cheetahs_on_Namibian_farmland.pdf


Marker L. L. 2002

Aspects of Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) Biology, Ecology, Conservation Strategies on Namibian Farmland

 

In an increasingly human-dominated environment, the task of successfully conserving large carnivores, such as cheetahs, is difficult due to real or perceived threats resulting in conflict and often their local extirpation. This research describes the causes and potential solutions to this conflict in Namibia. Cheetah biology and ecology were studied through physical examination, laboratory analysis, radio-tracking and human perceptions using survey techniques. Between 1991 and 2000 data were collected on over 400 live-captured and dead cheetahs.

 

 

 

 

PhD, Universtiy of Oxford, UK

516 pp.

Marker_2002_Cheetah_conservation_on_Namibian_farmland.pdf


 

Marnewick K., Funston PJ and Karanth KU 2008. Evaluating camera trapping as a method for estimating cheetah abundance in ranching areas. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 38(1): 59-65.

In order to accurately assess the status of the cheetah Acinonyx jubatus it is necessary to obtain data on numbers and demographic trends. However, cheetahs are notoriously difficult to survey because they occur at very low population densities and are often shy and elusive. In South Africa the problem is further complicated in areas where land is privately owned, restricting access, with dense bush and cheetahs that are frequently persecuted. Cheetahs are individually identifiable by their unique spot patterns, making them ideal candidates for capture-recapture surveys. Photographs of cheetahs were obtained using four camera traps placed successively at a total of 12 trap locations in areas of known cheetah activity within a 300 km² area in the Thabazimbi district of the Limpopo Province. During 10 trapping periods, five different cheetahs were photographed. These results were used to generate capture histories for each cheetah and the data were analysed using the capture-recapture software package CAPTURE. Closure tests indicated that the population was closed (P = 0.056). The Mh model was used to deal with possible heterogeneous capture probabilities among individual cheetahs. Closure tests did not reject the model assumption of population closure (P = 0.056).The Mh model produced a capture probability of 0.17 with an estimate of 6-14 cheetahs (P = 0.95) and a mean population size of seven cheetahs (S.E. = 1.93). These results are promising and will be improved with employment of more camera traps and sampling a larger area.

Marnewick_et_al_2008_Camera_trapping_as_method_for_estimating_cheetah_abundance.pdf


 

Mills MGL, Broomhall LS, du Toit JT. 2004. Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus feeding ecology in the Kruger National Park and a comparison across Africa savanna habitats: is the cheetah only a successful hunter on open grassland plains? Wildlife Biology 10(3):177-86.

The literature on cheetah Acinonyx jubatus ecology is dominated by studies on the Serengeti Plains (SNP) in East Africa. Because of this and the cheetah's hunting strategy it is generally considered to be a predator that prefers open grassland plains. However, cheetahs also inhabit a range of bush, scrub and woodland habitats. A field study using direct observations of radio-collared individuals in the woodland savanna habitat of the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa, and a literature review of studies across savanna habitats examined cheetah predation, hunting behaviour and habitat use in relation to prey composition, cover availability and kleptoparasitism. The cheetah's main prey is medium-sized herbivores, with a bias towards male prey. The group size and sex of the hunting cheetah may influence the results of prey selection studies as male coalitions tend to take larger prey than females. Cheetahs initiated more hunts and had a higher success rate in the open woodland savanna of the KNP compared to other available habitats with thicker bush, and in other wooded savanna areas they also prefer more open habitat for hunting.

Mills_et_al_2004_Cheetah_feeding_ecology_in_Kruger_NP.pdf


Morsbach D.  The Behaviour, Ecology and Movements of Cheetah on the Farm Areas of SWA/Namibia.  1-30. 1986. 1986.

The document is the progress report of the research project on the behaviour, ecology and movements of the cheetah on farm areas in Namibia for the period between November 1985 to October 1986. Estimation of the number of cheetahs on farmlands, based on basic information on the species' movements and density, is between 2000 and 3000, remarkably less than the number of about 6000 that was estimated through questionnaires and personal communications. From this study it was found that the average loss of cattle due to cheetah predation is three to four calves per farm per year. The few farmers which actually did keep good written records of all calf births and mortalities, had almost always much less losses due to predation by cheetahs. Recommendations include the increase of the cheetah's economic value for farmers, the establishment of reservoir areas that must include a number of farms and where the farmers must agree that a calf loss of 3 to 4 calves a year is acceptable, and an intensive, fulltime study to make an accurate conclusion of the stock losses. Annexes figures of the movements of the studied cheetahs are given, as well as tables indicating their home range area estimations, stock losses on farms, and departmental permit records for the cheetah between 1980 to 1986.

Morsbach_1986_Cheetahs_on_farms_areas_of_Namibia.pdf


 

Oliver LJ, Morgan BJT, Durant SM, Pettorelli N. 2011. Individual heterogeneity in recapture probability and survival estimates in cheetah. Ecological Modelling 222, 776-784.

Accurate estimates of demographic parameters are key for understanding and predicting population dynamics and for providing insights for effective wildlife management. Up until recently, no suitable methodology has been available to estimate survival probabilities of species with asynchronous reproduction and a high level of individual variation in capture probabilities. The present work develops a capture-mark-recapture model for cheetahs in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania, which (a) deals with continuous reproduction, (b) takes into account the high level of individual heterogeneity in capture probabilities and (c) is spatially explicit. Results show that (1) our approach, which is an extensive modification of the Cormack-Jolly-Seber model, provides a lower female adult survival estimate and a higher male adolescent survival estimate than previous approaches to estimate cheetah survival in the area, (2) using sighting location alone is not sufficient to capture the individual variation in resighting probabilities for both sexes, and (3) precision in estimated survival probabilities is generally increased. Species which are individually recognizable, wide-ranging and/or where individuals differ substantially in sightability are particularly appropriate to our modelling approach, and our methodology would thus be appropriate for a wide number of species to provide more accurate estimates of survival.

Oliver_et_al_2011_Recapture_probability_and_survival_in_cheetah.pdf


 

Pettifer HL. 1981. The ecology of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) on the Suikerboard Nature Reserve. Conference proceeding 27 p.

Cheetah were relocated to the Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve between 1975 and 1976. A rapid increase in cheetah numbers with simultaneous declines in certain ungulate species warranted intensive management-oriented research. Social grouping, population dynamics and prey selection of cheetahs are briefly discussed. Home ranges are shown to overlap considerably, although an effective spacing system is in operation. Home range size appears to depend largely upon social dominance and possibly territoriality.

Pettifer_1981_The_Ecology_of_the_Cheetah_on_the_Suikerbosrand_Nature_Reserve.pdf


 

Pettorelli N. and Durant SM. 2007. Longevity in cheetahs: the key to success? Oikos 116, 1879-1886.

An understanding of the factors governing reproductive success has fundamental implications for population demography, conservation, selection and adaptation. Although a consistent positive correlation between lifetime reproductive success and longevity has been reported for many iteroparous organisms, few studies have explored how longevity influences annual individual performance. In this study we show (1) that longevity and lifetime reproductive success are positively but not linearly correlated, (2) that short-lived individuals have higher annual reproductive success, (3) that the generally lower success of the last breeding occasion increased with females 'longevity, and (4) that long-lived females have higher chances of rearing long-lived females. We suggest that experience and the increase in the number of reproductive events with longevity are key processes leading to a strong correlation between (1) lifetime reproductive success and longevity and (2) mother and daughter longevities. Our results demonstrate the importance of long term studies that follow multiple generations in gaining a full understanding of the factors affecting reproductive success.

Pettorelli_&_Durant_2007_Longevity_in_cheetahs.pdf


 

Pettorelli N, Hilborn A, Broekhuis F, Durant SM. 2008. Exploring habitat use by cheetahs using ecological niche factor analysis. J. Zool., Lond. 277, 141-148.

Understanding the basis of habitat choice having important implications for explaining the distribution of organisms, as well as helping to differentiate between habitats of different quality for effective management. In this study, the effects of sex, age and reproductive status on habitat use patterns of cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus in the Serengeti plains were explored using Ecological Niche Factor Analysis (ENFA). Our results showed that gender and territoriality did not affect patterns of habitat use. However, females tended to be more specialized when they were young than when they were older, displaying a more restricted ecological niche. Likewise, older females without cubs were more specialized than the same adult females with young cubs. This result did not hold for younger females. Altogether, the ENFA approach allowed us to (1) use the large amount of incidental sighting data collected over 12 years on cheetah spatial distribution; (2) identify the importance of reproductive status and age on the relationship between animals and their habitat; (3) further demonstrate that ENFA is applicable in a wide range of situations, including for exploring individual variation in niche definition.

Pettorelli_et_al_2008_Habitat_use_by_cheetah_using_ENFA.pdf


 

Sinclair ARE, Mduma S, Brashares JS. 2003. Patterns of predation in a diverse predator-prey system. Nature 425:288-90.

There are many cases where animal populations are affected by predators and resources in terrestrial ecosystems, but the factors that determine when one or the other predominates remain poorly understood. Here we show, using 40 years of data from the highly diverse mammal community of the Serengeti ecosystem, East Africa, that the primary cause of mortality for adults of a particular species is determined by two factors-the species diversity of both the predators and prey and the body size of that prey species relative to other prey and predators. Small ungulates in Serengeti are exposed to more predators, owing to opportunistic predation, than are larger ungulates; they also suffer greater predation rates, and experience strong predation pressure. A threshold occurs at prey body sizes of  ~150 kg, above which ungulate species have few natural predators and exhibit food limitation. Thus, biodiversity allows both predation (top-down) and resource limitation (bottom-up) to act simultaneously to affect herbivore populations. This result may apply generally in systems where there is a diversity of predators and prey.

Sinclair_et_al_2003_Patterns_of_predation.pdf


 

Stander PE. 1996. Basic ecological parameters and management constraints of lions and cheetahs in Bushmanland and Daudom Game Reserve, Namibia. Report, 8 p.

This report discusses basic ecology, biology and behaviour related to the habits of mainly lions in Namibia with some notes on cheetahs, and where possible compares the results with data from elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa. The densities of cheetahs are low for both Bushmanland (0.1-0.14/100km2) and Kalahari Gemsbok National Park (0.05-0.07/100km2). Observation on marked cheetahs gives strong suggestions that the species is resident all year round, utilizing enormous home ranges. The cheetah, which normally occur at low densities, are particularly susceptible to fragmentation of continuous habitat and need large "protected" areas that can support the long-term survival of entire large mammal communities.

Stander_1996_Ecology_and_conservation_of_lions_and_cheetahs_in_Namibia.pdf


 

Thorn M, Green M, Keith M, Marnewick K, Bateman PW, Cameron EZ, Scott DM. 2011. Large-scale distribution patterns of carnivores in northern South Africa: implications for conservation and monitoring. Oryx 45, 579-586.

Accurate assessment of carnivore population status is frequently hindered by insufficient distribution data. For northern South Africa we address this deficit by mapping new records from landscape-scale sign surveys, questionnaire interviews, problem animal records and camera trapping. The black-backed jackal Canis mesomelas and caracal Caracal caracal remain common and widespread. Ranges of the serval Leptailurus serval and brown hyaena Hyaena brunnea were much larger than previous estimates, reducing the risk of simultaneous extirpation across all occupied locations. The proportion of range area occupied was larger for several species, notably the leopard Panthera pardus, cheetah Acinonyx jubatus and serval. We conclude that the serval continues to recover from historical threats and is expanding into new areas. A larger brown hyaena range and less fragmented pattern of occurrence probably confers greater resilience to threats than was suggested by previous data. Reduced extinction risk arising from the increased area occupied by the cheetah and leopard is tempered by probable local range contraction. Our maps provide baseline information for monitoring the distribution of these six species, which is essential in managing ecological issues that have a spatial component such as responses to changing land use. Our results also demonstrate the utility of detection/nondetection surveys in rapid assessment of carnivore populations at large spatial scales.

Thorn_et_al_2011_Distribution_patterns_of_carnivores_in_northern_South_Africa.pdf

 

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