This text is divided into 4 sections: history, biology, ecology and conservation (click to view each section).

1) HISTORY

The First Cats and Evolution of the Cheetah

Fossil records date the first appearance of cat-like ancestors, known as Proailurus, at more than 30 million years ago. A division occurred in the cat lineage 26 million years ago (the Miocene Period). The sabre-toothed cats developed along one line while "true" cat ancestors developed along another path. The cheetah developed along the "true" cat line.

Studies conclude that cheetah ancestors originated in North America about 4 million years ago during the Pliocene period (5.2 to 1.6 million years ago). This cheetah relative, Miracinonyx, appears to be a common ancestor of both the cheetah and the puma (cougar). During the Ice Age Miracinonyx migrated across continents. Its descendants developed the characteristics that make the cheetah the unique animal that it is today. Two relatives, Acinonyx studeri and Acinonyx trumani, ranged in North America.

The Giant Cheetah, Acinonyx pardensis, roamed China, southern Europe and India in large numbers throughout the Ice Age. It is believed that this large carnivore was as big as a lion and ran at speeds as fast as the modern day cheetah. Additional Acinonyx species developed during this time as well.

1.1 million years ago, during the Pleistocene Period, (1.6 million to 10,000 years ago) intermediate-sized cheetahs, Acinonyx intermedius, ranged from Africa as Far East as China. Cheetahs hunted prey in the open plains as grasslands replaced forests during this time period. The sleek characteristics of the modern cheetahs became more prominent. This was especially evident in reduced body size and elongated limbs.

The cheetah of 200,000 years ago closely resembled the modern cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus. It was smaller in size than the intermediate cheetah. The largest populations lived in savannah and grassland areas of Africa and the Middle East, but small numbers ranged in Europe, India and China.

Genetic Bottleneck

Cheetah relatives had worldwide distribution until about 20,000 years ago. They were common throughout Africa, Asia, Europe and North America. The world's environment underwent drastic changes in climate during the Great Ice Age.

Throughout North America, Europe and Asia, 75% of the mammal species vanished. When some mammal species began to die out, so did all the cheetahs in North America and Europe and most of those in Asia and Africa. Only a handful of the modern cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus, remained. These animals are the ancestors of all cheetahs remaining today.

This resulted in what is called a genetic bottleneck. Cheetahs became inbred, meaning that all cheetahs are closely related.

Cheetah and Man

The cheetah was important to many cultures. Traditional African healers and witch doctors used cheetah foot bones in spiritualistic rituals to symbolize fleet-footedness and speed. They used bones from a wide variety of animals and techniques varied from tribe to tribe. Objects represented a person, thing or mood from the past, present or future, and are known as divinatory sets.

The San of Southern Africa ate cheetah meat as a symbol for speed, but it was not a main food in their diet.

During the time of the Egyptian Pharaohs, the cheetah was considered a goddess named "Mafdet". Pharaohs kept cheetahs as close companions, symbolic of Mafdet's protection of the royal throne.

Kings wore cheetah skins for dignity. Trade in cheetah skins only started after European explorers began requesting them.

Cheetah and Art

Sumerians (Iraqi ancestors) were the first to use cheetahs in art. The cheetah and leopard have often been mistaken for each other. Cheetahs in early art were frequently called "panther" or "hunting leopard". Early artists called the true leopard "pardus" and described it as a cross between a cheetah (panther) and a lion (leo).

Middle Age and Renaissance artists began drawing cheetahs and other animals more life-like. During this time of scientific exploration, detailed descriptions of animals provided incentive for reality in art. Artists included cheetahs more often in their paintings as the trade in live animals increased.

Artists always pictured cheetahs as animals of speed and royalty.

The Hunting Leopard

In C1700 BC, the Egyptians were the first to tame cheetahs. They admired the cheetah for its speed, hunting ability and beauty. They honoured cheetahs as symbols of royalty and prestige. The swiftest animal on earth became a cherished hunting companion of Pharaohs and royalty throughout Europe, Asia and India. Until the early 1900's, ownership of cheetahs was as important to these nobles as their love for gold. Cheetahs hunt by sight so they excelled in the sport known as "coursing". Hunts organised by royalty and nobles were for the challenge of sport, not for food. Hunts represented power and prestige.

By the 1500's the popularity of the cheetah as a hunting companion rivalled that of the dog. Cheetahs, the most easily tamed of the big cats, were caught, tamed and trained. Adults were used because cubs had not learned how to hunt. Tamed cheetahs formed a strong bond with their keepers.

Each cheetah rode to the hunt by horseback or on a cart. Its eyes were covered with a hood and uncovered when prey was sighted. The cat was released to chase down the prey then rewarded with meat fed from a wooden spoon.

Although cherished, pampered cheetahs were loved to near extinction and taken from the wild in great numbers. By the early 1900's, India and Iran were importing African cheetahs for the sport of "coursing", as their own wild populations became too small.

The Road to Extinction?

Through the 1900's, world development, industrialisation, automobiles, aeroplanes and man's inventions seemed limitless, yet there is nothing man-made that rivals the speed and efficiency of the cheetah.

Scientists classified the cheetah as Acinonyx jubatus, yet nobles still referred to it as the "hunting leopard". By the end of the 1800's, cheetahs were a rarity in Asia Minor and Arabia because of their use in the sport of "coursing".

Although it appeared that the cheetahs had a large range, their numbers within that range existed in small pockets. Cheetahs, farmers and their livestock all preferred open grasslands for their habitat. Increasing agricultural development and new settlements played havoc with remaining cheetah populations.

Where Did the Cheetah Go?

As human populations grew in the 1970's, the amount of land devoted to livestock farming steadily increased. Livestock filled the open land where cheetahs roamed. Natural prey became scarce. Farmers killed other large predators. Although game reserves protected them, cheetahs could not compete against hyenas and lions. Farmlands offered cheetahs a safe haven, but they sometimes killed livestock.

Farmers saw cheetahs more frequently and thought their numbers had increased. Cheetahs took the blame for most predator-related livestock losses. Farmers killed cheetahs by the thousands as pests or to sell their skins to the fur trade.

By 1975, researchers realized that the cheetah was in trouble. CITES (Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species) placed the cheetah on Appendix I, making international trade in live cheetah or cheetah products illegal. Local laws supported CITES in many countries where cheetahs still lived. Researchers began looking for ways to encourage the growth of cheetah populations through land management practices.

In the 1980's cheetah numbers declined by half. Each year farmers removed 700 - 800 cheetahs from the wild. Southern Africa still holds two-thirds of the world's remaining wild cheetahs. Cheetah population size in many regions may be too small to be viable for survival.

Cheetah Numbers Plummet!

It took 4,000,000 years for the cheetah to evolve into the unique animal it is today. It has taken less than 100 years for man to place it on the endangered species list. In 1900 there were 100,000 cheetahs in 33 African countries and 11 Asian countries. In 1975 there were 30,000 cheetahs in Africa. Only 100 survived in Iran. In 2,000 only 12,500 cheetahs lived in 26 African countries. Only 200 survived in Iran. In one century man has reduced the cheetah population to less than 13% of its original population.

Namibia - Cheetah Capital of the World

Namibia has the world's largest cheetah population. Approximately 3,000 cheetahs share the land with humans, livestock and wildlife.

Today, the status of the Namibian cheetah is stabilising. During the 1980's, the population of Namibian cheetahs declined by half. In this 10-year period, nearly 7,000 cheetahs were removed from the wild.

In most countries where cheetahs live, their numbers have been reduced to critical levels. The cheetah's survival worldwide is in human hands.

Namibia - Hope for the Future

The greatest hope for the cheetah's survival lies in the relatively pristine countryside of Namibia. Nearly 1,000 Namibian farmers control the fate of the country's cheetahs on whose land they live.

To survive, cheetahs need land and prey. A cheetah's home range covers several thousand hectares. Cheetahs prefer to eat wild game meat. When game numbers drop the cheetah is forced to hunt domestic livestock.

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2) BIOLOGY

The world's fastest land animal, the cheetah, is built for speed. Acceleration from 0 to 84 km/hr in just 3 seconds, with a full speed of 110 km/hr, means that the cheetah can out-perform a sports car!

The scientific name for cheetah is Acinonyx jubatus. The genus name, Acinonyx, is interpreted as 'non-moving claws', referring to the semi-retractable claws. The species name, jubatus, means "maned", referring to the mantle on a young cheetah's back.

The English word, "cheetah", comes from the Hindu word "chita" meaning the "spotted one".

Cheetah Subspecies

A subspecies is a subdivision of a species, usually based on geographic distribution. Five subspecies are currently recognised by most cheetah researchers. Ongoing research in classical taxonomy and genetics may increase or decrease this number.

Acinonyx jubatus venaticus subspecies live in northern Africa and Iran.

Acinonyx jubatus soemmeringii live in central Africa.

Acinonyx jubatus hecki live in western Africa.

Acinonyx jubatus raineyii live in eastern Africa.

Acinonyx jubatus jubatus live in southern Africa, including Namibia.

Once thought to be a separate subspecies, the king cheetah is no different than any other cheetah. Its coat pattern is just a rare colour variation with stripes versus spots.

How do Cheetahs Differ from other Big Cats?

Cheetahs are markedly different in both anatomy and behaviour from the other 36 species of cats. They are the only species in their genus. Until the 1900's they were often thought to be related to dogs rather than cats. Cheetahs are the only big cats that cannot roar, but they can purr.

They have evolved for speed versus power and aggression. Their bodies are lightweight in comparison to the build of other cats. They rely on their speed and skill for survival.

(For information on secrets of successful hunting, see under life cycle stage 3 below).

Body Built for Strength and Stamina

The cheetah's body is narrow and lightweight with long, slender limbs. Specialised muscles allow a greater swing to the limbs, increasing acceleration.

Body length: 112-135 cm
Weight: 34-54 kg
Shoulder height: 73+ cm

The cheetah's long muscular tail works as a rudder, stabilising and acting as a counter balance to its body weight. This allows sudden sharp turns during high-speed chases.

Built for Speed

The cheetah's unique body structure, long legs, flexible spine, semi-retractable claws and long tail allow it to achieve the unbelievable top speed of 110 km/hr.

A single stride can be an incredible seven metres, with four strides completed per second. A stride is one cycle with each foot touching the ground. There are two times in one stride when the cheetah's whole body is off the ground; once with all four legs extended and once with all bunched under the body. One foot touches the ground during the other points of the stride.

Feet and Claws

Cheetahs' footpads are hard and less rounded than the other cats. The pads function like tyre treads providing them with increased traction in fast, sharp turns.

The short blunt claws work like the cleats on a track shoe. They grip the ground for traction when running and help increase speed. Cheetahs' claws are semi-retractable, meaning they do not completely retract like the claws of other cats. The foot structure of the cheetah is very dog-like.

The dewclaws of the cheetah are located on the upper inside area of the front foot. These are sharp and frequently used to hook and hold prey.

Flexible Connections

The extreme flexibility of the cheetah's spine is unique. This allows more extension during running, thus making both its stride length and speed possible.

If the spine was stiff and the pectoral and pelvic girdles were firmly attached, the cheetah would not be able to reach 100 km/hr.

The hips (pelvic girdle) pivot to increase the cheetah's stride length. This allows the front and rear legs to stretch farther apart when the body is fully extended. The hips and shoulders move closer together when the feet come under its body. The shoulder blade (pectoral girdle) does not attach to the collarbone, thus allowing the shoulders to move freely. This increases the length of the stride.

Heart and Lungs

The cheetah has a large strong heart that rapidly pumps large amounts of oxygenated blood from the lungs to the muscles to keep them supplied with energy while running.

Large lungs provide adequate oxygen for a cheetah's increased energy needs while pursuing its prey. The cheetah's respiratory rate climbs from 60 to 150 breaths per minute, nearly twice as fast as humans. Cheetahs have enlarged nostrils and sinuses allowing an increase in airflow to the lungs.

High speeds can, however, only be maintained for 400 - 800 metres before exhaustion sets in and the body risks overheating. A cheetah running the 249 km from Otjiwarongo to Windhoek would need to stop to rest more than 311 times. If it could run there without resting, it would take 2 hours and 26 minutes at 110 km/hr.

A Cheetah's Senses

Cheetahs' eyes are high set, forward facing and capable of binocular vision. A cheetah's field of vision is far greater than that of humans (210 degrees versus 140).

Like all big cats, their pupils are round. Smaller cat species have diamond shaped pupils. The retina, the lining in the back of the eye, has more cones and fewer rods than other cats. Rods and cones enable light and colour to be received by the brain. Cheetahs cannot see as well as other cats at night. They have excellent vision for distant objects and may even see some colours. Cheetahs can see detail to a distance of 5 km, while humans with binoculars would have difficulty seeing the same detail.

Although they rely primarily on sight, cheetahs have excellent hearing. They are able to hear the slightest sound and high frequencies. Human ears cannot detect many of the sounds that are heard by cheetahs. The cheetah's ears are small and round. A black patch of soft fur behind each ear is believed to be an adaptation to resemble a pair of eyes.

Cheetah Jaws and Teeth

The cheetah's teeth are adapted to support their eating style. By eating fast, cheetahs avoid losing their prey to other predators. Teeth are adapted to rip and tear.

The canines, "eye teeth" or "fangs", are used for gripping and holding while the prey is being suffocated. The cheetah's canines are smaller and less developed than those of the lion or leopard.

The incisors, "front teeth", are used for plucking fur and skinning the carcass. Straight and strong incisors are essential for quick access to the meat of the prey.

The carnassials, "back teeth" or "pre-molars", work in scissor-like fashion and enable the cheetah to shear large pieces of flesh which are quickly swallowed whole. When using these teeth during feeding, cheetahs hold their heads sideways at an angle to the carcass. These blade-like teeth are similar to the lions' and leopards' carnassials. They do not have the same function of chewing meat as those of the jackal or crushing bones like those of the hyena.

Cheetahs' jaws are not as powerful as that of lions' or leopards' jaws. In all cats, powerful muscles move the jaw up and down and provide vice-like strength for gripping prey and ensure correct action of the carnassial teeth.

The tongue is adapted for licking and is covered with small hard spines called papillae. The papillae act like a rasp, removing the meat from the bones of the prey. The rough tongue feels similar to the texture of sandpaper.

Spots and Stripes

Adult cheetahs are easily distinguished from other cats by their coat patterns. The colour and spots are a form of camouflage. This helps cheetahs hunt prey and hide from other predators. Camouflage is a feature that blends and hides an animal in its environment. It includes the animal's coat pattern or colour, smell, or the noises it makes.

Distinctive black tear stripes run from the eyes to the mouth. The stripes are thought to protect the eyes from the sun's glare. It is believed they have the same function as a riflescope, helping cheetahs focus on their prey.

Keeping the fur clean is an important part of a cheetah's life. Family members spend many hours grooming each other with their tongues. This behaviour aids in the social bonding of a cheetah group.

THE CYCLE OF LIFE

There are four stages in the life cycle of the cheetah.

1. Stage 1: 90 to 95 days pregnancy (gestation and birth).
2. Stage 2: 6 weeks to 18 months (leaving the den, play, learning to hunt).
3. Stage 3: 18 to 22 months (leaving mother, successful hunts).
4. Stage 4: adult life (adult living, mating).

Life Cycle Stage 1

The female's gestation period lasts 90 to 95 days. This means she is pregnant for about three months. Shortly before she is ready to give birth the mother makes a den in a quiet hidden spot. She chooses her location in the tall grass, thick undergrowth or near a clump of rocks.

A cheetah gives birth to an average of five to six cubs. Each cub weighs between 250 and 425 grams. Cubs are born completely helpless and with their eyes closed, but they develop rapidly. Scent and touch are used to find their mother's nipples to suckle.

They start crawling around the nest area at four to ten days when their eyes begin to open. At three weeks their teeth break through the gums.

A mother cheetah will frequently move her litter. This prevents a build-up of scent at the den site, which may lead other predators to the cubs. She carries very young cubs in her jaws.

The cubs are very vulnerable to lions, hyenas and other predators when the female leaves them alone. When hunting she may be away for up to 48 hours. In Tanzania's Serengeti National Park, 90% of all cubs do not reach the age of 3 months! Other causes of death are abandonment when prey is scarce, exposure due to low temperatures or grass fires.

Until three months of age cheetah cubs have a thick silvery-grey mantle down their back. The mantle helps camouflage the cubs by blending them into the shadows and grass. It also provides protection from sun and rain.

With their mantle cubs look like an aggressive animal called a honey badger. This may deter predators such as lions, hyenas and eagles from attempting to kill them. This is known as "mimicry".

Life Cycle Stage 2

At 1½ to 2 months of age, the cubs leave the safety of the den to accompany their mother. They are very vulnerable as they are not able to defend themselves.

They stop drinking their mother's milk at 3 to 4 months of age. They start eating meat and learning to hunt. The games they play and the experiences they have during this stage will teach them skills needed to survive on their own. The tail is thought to be a signalling device, helping young cheetahs follow their mothers in tall grass. The tip may be black or white in colour.

Cheetahs at play

Young cheetahs explore and investigate their surroundings. In play behaviour they stalk, pounce, chase, box, wrestle and play tug-of-war. Play behaviour helps them develop strength and body coordination. Play is important for learning and practising hunting skills.

They also trip each other from the rear. This is typical behaviour when catching prey. They chase and try to catch many different species of small birds, such as francolin or guinea fowl.

Learning to hunt

Cheetahs watch their mother hunt. The mother brings live prey, such as a young gazelle, to the 9 to 12 month old cubs. She releases it in front of them and the cubs attempt to catch it. This allows the cubs to practice their hunting skills while still under her supervision. Accurate timing and coordination during a hunt are important for their future survival.

Life Cycle Stage 3

Stage three begins at the age of 18 to 22 months when the cubs have grown to sub-adults and leave their mother. The sub-adults will remain together for up to six more months. At first their success rate at capturing prey is poor.

Secrets of Successful Hunting

To achieve a successful hunt a sequence of behaviours occurs. If the sequence is interrupted the hunt will be abandoned. If it is successful, the cheetah may not have to hunt again for several days. The sequence consists of several parts:

Visual contact - The cheetah climbs termite mounds or trees as vantage points to locate potential prey.

Approaching prey - The cheetah may either select and stalk prey from a hidden position or approach the prey at a walk or slow run. The cheetah takes smaller prey than other similar sized cats.

Chase - The cheetah bursts into full speed after its prey. If the chase is unsuccessful, the cheetah will need to rest before another hunt is attempted.

Trip - Running at full speed, the cheetah uses its front foot and dewclaw to strike at the hind legs of its prey, tripping and knocking it down.

Killing prey - Prey is killed by suffocation when the cheetah takes hold of the throat, closing off the windpipe. Their strong jaws lock around the throat of the prey in what is called a "strangulation hold", which can last up to 20 minutes.

Rest - A cheetah will sometimes be too exhausted to eat after a high-speed chase. It may rest up to 30 minutes before eating or hunting again.

Feeding - Cheetahs often drag their kills to a shaded area and begin eating the hindquarters of the carcass.

Cheetahs are diurnal, hunting mornings and early evenings. Diurnal refers to animals that are active during daylight hours. They rely on their sight to find prey. They spend most of the day resting under shady trees or on termite mounds. Night hunting is only done during a bright moon.

Life Cycle Stage 4

In stage 4 cheetahs become sexually mature. Although they are mature at 16 to 18 months, most do not breed until they are three to five years old.

At 20-30 months of age, females leave their littermates to find suitable mates and start their own families. They raise their families on their own without the help of the male.

Males usually do not breed until they are 4 to 5 years of age, and dominant in a territory. They live alone or brothers form permanent groups called "coalitions". These groups stay together for life, claim territories, hunt and find mates together.

Finding a mate

The range of a female offspring may partially overlap that of her mother. Namibian cheetahs are more social than those reported in other countries. Females are often seen with multiple adults and cubs of varying ages.

Female cheetahs are polyoestrous, which means there is no regular breeding season. If not bred, females come into heat (oestrus) several times a year. Oestrus means they are ready to breed. If cubs are lost to predators, females soon come into oestrus again.

Smell, sound and behavioural stimuli attract males to females. Female cheetahs leave a scent trail by releasing sex hormones in urine and faeces. They mark trees and bushes. This behaviour increases during courtship.

When courtship takes place, males will follow females closely and mock fighting may be observed.

When a female is ready to mate she adopts a receptive posture. The male mounts the female, bites the back of her neck, and breeding takes place. When the male dismounts the female she rolls over on her back and swats at him.

Mating will take place for one to several days and ends when the male loses interest in the female and leaves. Males do not help raise the cubs.

Living Fast - Dying Young

A coalition consists of male siblings of the same litter or young unrelated males that have joined together. A hierarchy develops among the males within a coalition.

Dominant breeding males usually chase young males away from their birth range. They may establish home ranges more than 100 km away. A coalition is more successful in acquiring and holding territories and in defending kills than single males. This competition can result in mortality among males.

Mortality

The cheetah's life span is poorly documented in the wild. A radio collared cheetah lived to be almost 7 years of age in Tanzania's Serengeti National Park and one of CCF's radio collared cheetahs in Namibia lived for over 10 years.

Adult mortality is one of the most significant limiting factors for cheetah population growth and survival. Poaching, competition with large predators and farmers, and loss of habitat and prey are factors attributing to early death.

Although cub deaths are high, cheetahs have evolved to reproduce rapidly in response to this mortality.

Vocalizations

Cheetahs have many unusual vocalizations. These are some of the most common calls made by cheetahs.

Purr - As with domestic cats this sound indicates a friendly and contented mood.

Chirp - A high-pitched bird-like chirp is used by a mother calling her cubs, cheetahs greeting each other and during courtship. These calls can be heard over a long distance. The intensity of the chirp increases with excitement.

Stutter Call - A male on the trail of a female in heat will use this call. It is also used by a mother asking her cubs to follow closely.

Growling, Hissing - These sounds are associated with defence and aggression. With these vocalizations, they may lunge and slap the ground, alternately crouching and growling.

Bleating - This sound expresses distress and is similar to meowing.

Ihn-Ihn - This call is used by a mother to summon her young and alternates with chirping.

Genetic Confusion

Genes are the components of living cells that pass down inherited characteristics such as brown eyes or curly hair in humans.

Genetic diversity is the variety of genes in an organism or in a population. Diversity increases the likelihood that a given species can adapt and survive catastrophes such as sudden environmental changes or exposure.

How Does this Relate to the Cheetah?

Cheetahs are very closely related and have a low genetic diversity. This is due to the drastic reduction in their numbers when the population bottleneck occurred. This inbreeding and low genetic diversity may cause abnormalities.

Abnormalities

CCF collects data to monitor cheetah genetics, viruses, physical qualities and reproduction. Body measurements, blood and skin samples help evaluate overall health. CCF has recorded the following abnormalities in wild Namibian cheetahs:

Crowded lower incisors - Cheetahs use their front teeth (incisors) to rapidly skin their prey. Some cheetahs have very crowded and crooked front teeth. This abnormality decreases the amount of meat the cheetah can quickly eat before another predator steals its kill.

Focal palatine erosion - This abnormality occurs when the lower molars (back teeth) damage and break through the upper palate (roof of mouth). Dental impressions and skull X-rays allow CCF to relate problems with information on genetics, health, diet and geographical origin of affected cheetahs. Palatine erosion is reported in both captive and wild cheetahs and can lead to fatal infection.

Abnormal sperm - A high frequency of sperm abnormalities (71%) first alerted researchers to the genetic problems of cheetahs. Cheetahs have a very low sperm count - 10 times lower than a domestic cat. Sperm abnormalities usually indicate a high level of inbreeding in the population. Cheetahs breed normally despite this problem and long-term monitoring will follow their success rate.

Birth defects - Congenital (genetic) birth defects, such as six legged and two-headed cubs, are often reported in cheetahs and cause high infant mortality. Defects are a result of low genetic diversity. This problem is also recorded in other inbred species.

Kinked tails - Crooked tails have been recorded in 19% of the Namibian cheetahs evaluated since 1995. This is the first documentation of this abnormality in wild cheetahs and could be linked to a lack of genetic diversity.

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3) ECOLOGY

Parks And Farms

Farming in Namibia, as in most African countries, is a way of life for 70-80% of the population. It is the third most important industry in Namibia and contributes approximately 10% to the economy. Commercial and communal farmers in cooperation with the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) are the responsible caretakers of wildlife.

Communal Farming

33.5 million hectares or 40% of the country consists of communal lands. These lands are home to 70% of Namibia's total population of about 1.6 million people. Communal farms are primarily common rangeland and are used mostly for subsistence agriculture, consisting of small scale crop farming and grazing livestock.

Commercial Farming

36.2 million hectares or 45% of the country is taken up by approximately 7,000 private fenced commercial farms. Commercial farming accounts for about 20% of employment and provides an important export commodity. These farmers produce primarily cattle, goats and sheep. There is also some commercial crop production. Mixed wildlife and livestock farming is most common and trophy hunting is a large source of income.

Parks and Reserves

Namibia has 21 recognised parks and reserves that cover approximately 14% of Namibia's land surface. This figure exceeds the 10% recommended by the World Conservation Union (ICUN). The desert biome represents 69% of the total area being conserved whereas other biomes are not as well represented. Diamond reserves occupy 1% of the land.

Namibian Biomes

A biome is an area with similar vegetation types and includes all animal life that lives in that area. There are four distinct biomes in Namibia. Each biome has its own variety of plant and animal communities. Climate, plants and animals separate biomes. It is often difficult to draw a line between biomes that have the same plants and animals.

The Namib Desert Biome

The Namib Desert biome extends from the Orange River mouth in southern Namibia, to the Kunene River mouth in northern Namibia. The Namib Desert covers 276,000 km². When simply translated, the Namib means, "bare place".

This biome is classified as hyper-arid, receiving less than 50 mm of rain per year. As a result, many plants and animals have adapted to survive with very little water.

The Winter Rainfall Area

A small section in the south western corner of the Namib Desert biome receives both summer and winter rainfall.

It receives more rainfall than the rest of the desert biome; therefore it has a much higher percentage of organisms. These include succulent plants, shrubs, insects and reptiles. Five of the seven Namibian tortoises occur in this biome.

The Woodland Savannah

This biome lies in the north eastern corner of Namibia. As a result of higher rainfall, it is characterised by the presence of medium to large trees. The animals found here tend to be browsers rather than grazers.

The Grassland Savannah

This is the largest biome in Namibia. It stretches over the entire central region of the country.

The vegetation consists mainly of grassland with scattered bushveld. It supports a wide variety of organisms, many of which depend on abundant water and large volumes of food. Animals migrate to areas that have received rain to take advantage of the new growth.

Where Cheetah Live

Animals, including cheetahs, are adapted to live in specific habitats. Cheetahs live mainly in grassland savannahs. They prefer habitat that includes some cover in the form of bushes, medium-length grass, trees and small hills. Cheetahs need abundant prey in their habitat to survive and reproduce. In Namibia their habitat is densely bushed due to bush encroachment.

Cheetahs sometimes live in a wide variety of habitats. They occasionally use semi-desert, dense woodland or mountainous terrain. Older animals unable to defend territories and young cheetahs just starting to live on their own use these marginal habitats.

A habitat is an area providing all that an animal needs to survive. It includes food, water, shelter, living space and a suitable climate. An animal may move away or die if its habitat fails to meet one or more of its needs.

Leave Your Mark

For over 50 years farmers have noted that cheetahs use certain trees. They call these trees "play trees" or "newspaper trees". The use of play trees is unique to Namibian cheetahs.

The sense of smell is one of the cheetah's main channels of communication. This communication is usually through scent marking at strategic sites. Play trees are often used for leaving communication through scent marking.

Play trees are used by cheetahs to mark their territory with either urine, faeces or by scratching. The trees normally have sloping trunks that branch into large horizontal limbs that can be easily climbed.

Wandering cheetahs visiting play trees inspect markings and identify other cheetahs passing through the area. Individuals visiting trees are mostly males. Females may only visit the tree when in oestrus and looking for a mate.

To Trap a Cheetah

Trap cages are traditionally used to catch wild cheetahs. These cages are placed directly along trails where tracks are regularly seen, or at play trees. The cheetah's drive to reach the play tree is very strong. To catch a cheetah at a play tree, thorn branches are placed around the tree to prevent the cheetah from reaching it. Since the only access to the tree is through the trap cage, they will not hesitate to go into the trap. Many cheetahs may be caught at the same play tree, as most of the cheetahs in the area will visit the tree to leave their mark. Whole families of cheetahs may be caught in this way.

Understanding Animal Movements

To understand how cheetahs use their habitat you must be able to identify individual animals and record their position periodically. Individual photos or distinctive collars would be useful if cheetahs were frequently sighted, but they are not. Trackers may note the spoor (tracks) of a particular cheetah at various places and estimate when they were made. This is difficult due to the large ranges they cover and the fact that individuals are hard to identify.

The preferred method to study cheetah movements is to radio-track individuals. A lightweight collar carrying a battery pack and a small transmitter is fitted around the cheetah's neck. The scientist uses a receiver and a special directional antenna (either on the ground or from a plane) to pick up the cheetah's signal. The receiver translates the signal into beeps. Each collar's transmitter has a different radio frequency so that many animals can be located during one "radio-tracking session".

Territories and Ranges

What is a territory?

A relatively small area that an animal defends against rivals of its own species. A territorial fight usually breaks out between members of the same sex. Defence of a territory can end in violence and death.

What is a home range?

It is usually larger than a territory and includes the entire area an animal uses but does not necessarily defend. Animals of the same species may share resources within this area.

Mammals of Namibia

A mammal is a warm-blooded animal that feeds its young with milk. Mammals have food preferences and are classified according to the food they prefer. Carnivores eat meat. Herbivores eat plant material. Grazers eat grass, while browsers eat mainly leaves from trees and shrubs. Mixed feeders eat both grass and leaves. Omnivores eat both meat and plants.

Endemic means that more than 90% of an animals or plants natural population occurs in one country or area.

An exotic animal or plant is one that has been introduced to a new area where it does not occur naturally.

Indigenous means that an animal or plant occurs naturally in a particular area.

The cheetah is a carnivorous mammal that is indigenous to Namibia

The Cheetah's Prey

A prey animal is an animal that is hunted and killed by other animals for food. Cheetahs hunt mostly small antelope, young of large antelope, warthog, hare and game birds. They may take livestock in exceptional or opportunistic cases. Cheetahs prefer game to livestock.

The cheetah's lightweight build limits the sizes of prey selected. Male coalitions can, however, overcome larger prey. Coalitions also stand a better chance at defending their prey against competitors than single cheetahs.

Predators have to work very hard to catch their prey. Cheetahs need to carefully select the animal they are most likely to catch. For this reason cheetahs, like all other predators, target animals that are old, sick, very young, injured, slow or just stupid. This allows only the strongest to survive and pass on their genes, thus maintaining a healthier game population.

Cheetahs have an average success rate of 50 catches for every 100 attempts. Female cheetahs with cubs are less successful because the cubs sometimes disturb the hunt.

Lions are less successful at catching their prey, with only 30 catches for 100 attempts. Lions seldom lose their prey to other predators.

Predator Competition

Cheetahs are not the only predators in Namibia. Lions, leopards and spotted hyenas occur in high numbers in game reserves and national parks. These larger predators often kill cheetah cubs and occasionally adult cheetahs. They also chase cheetahs from their kills. This is the reason why cheetahs do not do well in these reserves. African wild dogs have similar problems.

Only 5% of Namibia's cheetahs live in game reserves and national parks.

Cheetahs seldom defend themselves against the other more powerful large predators. Sustaining injuries in fights could severely affect a cheetah's hunting ability that may result in death due to starvation. Cheetahs frequently have to surrender their prey to other animals, as their instinct is to flee rather than fight.

What is a Predator?

Predators are animals that hunt, kill and eat other animals in order to survive, grow and reproduce. Predators come in all shapes and sizes and include some bird, insect and mammal species.

Namibian Predators

Although cheetahs are often blamed for livestock losses there are other predators in Namibia that may opportunistically take domestic stock as their prey.

LEOPARD
Panthera pardus
DIET: antelope, warthog, birds, rodents
HABITAT: widespread
SHOULDER HEIGHT: 70cm
LIFE SPAN: 18 years
CHIEF ENEMIES: man
STATUS: common

BLACK BACKED JACKAL
Canis mesomelas
DIET: young antelope, carrion, fruit
HABITAT: widespread
SHOULDER HEIGHT: 45cm
LIFE SPAN: 13 years
CHIEF ENEMIES: man, larger predators
STATUS: common

SPOTTED HYENA
Crocuta crocuta
DIET: chiefly carrion
HABITAT: open bush veld
SHOULDER HEIGHT: 80cm
LIFE SPAN: 14 years
CHIEF ENEMIES: man, lion
STATUS: common where protected

SERVAL
Felis serval
DIET: mainly rats and mice
HABITAT: areas with sufficient rainfall
SHOULDER HEIGHT: 56cm
LIFE SPAN: 12 years
CHIEF ENEMIES: man, larger predators
STATUS: uncommon

WILD DOG
Lycaon pictus
DIET: small game to adult kudu
HABITAT: grassland to open woodland
SHOULDER HEIGHT: 69cm
LIFE SPAN: 10 years
CHIEF ENEMIES: man
STATUS: endangered

CARACAL
Felis caracal
DIET: small to medium size animals
HABITAT: widespread
SHOULDER HEIGHT: 43cm
LIFE SPAN: 11 years
CHIEF ENEMIES: man
STATUS: common

LION
Panthera leo
DIET: all antelope
HABITAT: grassy woodlands
SHOULDER HEIGHT: 105cm
LIFE SPAN: 20 years
CHIEF ENEMIES: man
STATUS: vulnerable

NAMIBIA IS HOME TO THE LARGEST FREE-RANGING CHEETAH POPULATION IN THE WORLD.

95% of Namibia's cheetahs live on commercial livestock farmlands, outside protected game reserves.

The same land that supports cheetahs and their prey also supports cattle, sheep and goats. These farmlands support 70% of the country's wild game species, the cheetahs' prey base.

Predator Control

Predator Control is an issue around the world. An animal usually resorts to killing livestock due to a medical problem, human influence or a natural incident that renders it unable to catch its wild prey. Only a cheetah that consistently hunts livestock should be considered a problem animal. It is critical to identify the individual culprit causing losses rather than remove all cheetahs indiscriminately. The opportunistic killing of inadequately protected livestock, such as newborn calves in the bush, indicates poor livestock management that does not warrant the removal of the predator. Some farmers trap, poison and shoot cheetahs. This may not be due to stock losses, but simply because the predator entered the farm and is perceived as a threat to livestock or family.

Predator control most commonly involves setting live capture cage traps. Farmers also use gin traps and poisoned carcasses. These methods only increase problems, as they tend to lure and kill indiscriminately. Animals suffering as a result include ones that benefit the farmland ecosystem such as pangolin, aardwolf, honey badger and bat-eared fox.

What is a "Problem Animal"?

A problem animal competes with man, his needs or his activities. What a person thinks is a "problem animal" will vary depending on their needs or activities.

Changes in Habitat

Climate and wildlife laws change over time, influencing cheetah habitat. Drought in Namibia is a recurring event that is expected and managed. Drought cycles have been recorded at ten-year intervals although the drought of the 1980's continued for nearly 20 years until the rainy season of 1999-2000.

1960's

Drought and disease strained a habitat already stressed by high numbers of grazing livestock. Foot and Mouth disease killed many cattle. The first veterinary cordon fence was erected preventing migration of wildlife and spread of disease. Game was killed in high numbers to save grassland for livestock. The government transferred ownership of huntable game to commercial farmers to encourage wildlife conservation.

1970's

A period of good rains provided good grazing. This supported higher livestock and wildlife numbers. Predators, including cheetahs, found plenty of food. New pressure was placed on cheetahs with the introduction of game farms.

1980's

Drought led to the reduction of wildlife numbers from starvation and organised culling to save grazing lands for livestock. Game populations crashed by 60% over a two-year period. The cheetah's principal prey animal, the kudu, declined by 80% due to an outbreak of the rabies virus.

Namibia's cheetah population declined by 50% due to the indiscriminate removal of cheetahs in high numbers.

1990's

Limited and conditional ownership of huntable game was extended to communal areas through a Wildlife Council and Conservancy Committee. Farmers continued to perceive cheetahs as "problem animals". Due to conservation education programmes, more farmers began to tolerate cheetahs on their lands.

2000's

People, their use of the habitat, and weather will determine the cheetah's future...

Bush Encroachment

One of the most serious environmental threats facing Namibia is bush encroachment. Approximately 14 million hectares of land (12% of Namibia) is now so badly encroached that neither man nor livestock can penetrate it.

Under natural conditions, the savannahs are covered with grasslands, scattered trees and shrubs, supporting a wide variety of wildlife. Herbivores usually feed intensively in localised areas for short periods of time. Plants and trees experience brief and intensive browsing and grazing pressure separated by extended rest periods. This, combined with regular fires, maintains a balance between trees and grasses. Larger animals like elephant and rhino aid in controlling the growth of bush.

Cheetah survival in bush encroached areas

Bush encroachment is the uncontrolled increase in unwanted woody plants. It is a form of desertification, where the thick bush replaces grasses.

Bush encroachment reduces carrying capacity for both livestock and game species. As bush encroachment increases, cheetahs must adapt their hunting techniques. Ambush tactics may replace the characteristic high-speed chase. Scientists are investigating a possible link between the increased occurrence of cheetah eye injuries and their hunting in bush encroached areas.

Dense bush, however, makes it harder for hunters and farmers to spot and shoot cheetahs so it may be a mixed blessing!

Cheetahs on the Farm

Namibian farmers have reduced or exterminated most other large predators including lions, wild dogs and spotted hyenas. With few natural competitors, cheetahs survive and reproduce in relative safety on farmland. The protection and maintenance of game animals on farmlands favours cheetahs. Their natural prey base is often abundant and drinking water is readily available at permanent watering points.

The Farming Community

Namibian farmlands form an ecosystem in which farmers and cheetahs play key roles. Farmers must be flexible enough to adapt their farming practices to changing environmental conditions. In doing so they have modified their farming practices to suit their farming requirements. Livestock and exotic animals have been introduced, barriers erected in the form of fencing, and indigenous animals harvested. Planting crops and over-stocking alters natural vegetation.

Commercial Farms

Commercial farms occupy and maintain the best cheetah habitat in Namibia. Almost all of Namibia's cheetahs live on these farmlands where they find necessary water and sufficient prey. The elimination of lions, hyenas and wild dogs is also in the cheetah's favour.

Communal Farms

Very few cheetahs live on communal farms, mainly due to the low population of game animals and high number of humans. In some areas there is also competition from other large predators, such as leopards that sometimes kill cheetahs. The communal farming system does not allow for sustainable resource utilisation and is referred to as the " "tragedy of the commons". The wild game is no exception to this over-utilisation. This lack of an adequate prey base increases conflict between farmers and cheetahs, thus reducing the cheetah's range in these areas.

Game Farms

Some commercial farms have been converted to game farms by the erection of game proof fences. Game farms are ideal cheetah habitat because they contain the cheetah's natural prey. Game farmers, however, seldom tolerate cheetahs killing their valuable game. The majority of losses to cheetahs in game-fenced areas are exotic game, because they are more vulnerable to predators than indigenous species.

There are two varieties of game fencing in Namibia:

A fence that restricts the movement of non-jumping game, including animals like gemsbok, springbok and red hartebeest, is usually 1.4 m high with 11 wire strands. Fencing which is 2.6 m high and has approximately 21 strands confines exotic and valuable game such as blesbok, roan and sable. It prevents the movement of giraffe and zebra as well as high-jumping game such as kudu and eland. A veterinary cordon fence is also built in this style.

The electrification of game fencing, if well maintained, will keep cheetahs out of game farms, thus reducing conflict. Electrification is worth the investment as it protects valuable and exotic game.

What is Sustainable Utilisation?

Sustainable utilisation is the use and management of a resource without destroying it, allowing it to continue to be used, grow and reproduce. New methods of livestock and wildlife management are incorporated into agricultural practices to ensure a healthy ecosystem.

Mixed farming - wildlife and livestock

Combining game and livestock farming holds many advantages for the farmer. A variety of game species helps to maintain a healthy farmland ecosystem by using all levels and forms of vegetation. When livestock prices are low, game animals can supplement the farmer's income in the form of hunting, ecotourism or direct live sale. Game animals tolerate drought conditions better than livestock. They also act as a buffer, reducing the occurrence of predation on livestock.

Conservancies

Conservancies are legally protected areas with shared common resources where conservation is actively practised. Its purpose is to achieve a collective policy for the ownership, management and use of resources. Conservation is the management of human use of organisms or ecosystems to ensure that such use is sustainable. Conservancy objectives include the protection, maintenance, rehabilitation, restoration and enhancement of ecosystems.

Conservancies retain all income from wildlife and tourism based enterprises within the conservancy and decide on how these funds are spent. Commercial conservancies consist of adjacent private farms joining together in common units. Communal conservancies operate on a local level and membership is made up entirely of community members who decide to work together for the sustainable management and use of wildlife and tourism.

Each conservancy identifies conservation goals and designs a management plan to reach their objectives. These may include cooperative management and sustainable use of the natural resources in combination with agricultural practices. Guidelines assist members in coordinating the management and use of resources within the conservancy.

Ecotourism

Namibia has a reputation as the "Cheetah Capital of the World" and tourists come to see cheetah habitat and learn how cheetahs survive on farmlands. Ecotourism focuses on animals, habitats and places of conservation interest. Etosha National Park, the Namib Desert and the Skeleton Coast are major attractions for foreign ecotourists. Lodges, guest farms and communal villages are points on Namibian ecotours. Many of these destinations promote cheetah conservation.

Sometime in the 2000's the annual number of tourists visiting Namibia will exceed 500,000. Tourists spend money on transport, lodging, food and souvenirs. This is an important part of the economy and a supplement to agricultural income for many Namibians.

An ecosystem is a shared place in the environment that includes both living and non-living things such as animals, plants, soil and water and the relationships that happen between them.

Hunting

Traditional hunting versus Poaching?

Subsistence hunting for food is carried out throughout the world where families live off the land. Traditional methods of traps and snares are still popular but more and more people are turning towards guns.

Throughout the world, poaching has become a major problem. Poaching is the illegal taking of animals without permit or authorisation.

Conservation through sustainable utilisation

Sustainability refers to a process that can last forever. Utilising a resource sustainably means that using the natural resource will not destroy it. Hunting can be a form of sustainable use. A sustainable outlook on hunting also sets aside a portion of the revenue collected from the hunt to support conservation efforts for the species.

While hunting can sometimes replace predators in the control of game populations, it generally does not target injured, sick or unfit animals, as predators would do. Game hunters often lack the instinctive ability to recognise weaker or unfit individuals within a population. Thus hunting must be carefully managed to ensure that it is sustainable.

Hunting has changed through the ages from a necessity for survival, to a sport and a management activity. Ethical hunters and trophy hunting operations operate with the best intentions for conservation and the continued existence of the population being hunted.

In Namibia, there are a number of laws that regulate hunting. Permits are required to hunt wildlife that has been divided up into numerous categories, namely, huntable game, protected animals, specially protected animals and wild animals. With each of these categories there are differing requirements for permits.

Population control

Game farmers have to manage their herds throughout the year and on occasion they cull animals to reduce their numbers, through shooting or live sale. When animals are shot, the meat is sold for food. Game capture units transport and sell live game. Permits are required for these operations.

Hunting of Cheetah

It is legal to hunt cheetahs in Namibia. Since 1992, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) allows Namibia an annual quota of 150 cheetahs as trophy animals or for live export. Namibia is one of only three countries granted this quota as an economic incentive for farmers to allow cheetahs on their farms and to stop indiscriminate catching and killing.

To support long-term conservation strategies for the cheetah, the Namibian Professional Hunting Association (NAPHA) established the Rare Species Committee (RASPECO) in 1994. RASPECO developed guidelines and programmes to support the sustainable utilisation of rare species such as the cheetah. A CHEETAH COMPACT was developed that farmers and hunters have been asked to sign. By signing the COMPACT they agree that cheetahs are a valuable resource and cooperate in efforts to ensure the cheetah's survival by conducting responsible and monitored trophy hunting. Farmers additionally agree to stop indiscriminate killing of cheetahs and manage their property as cheetah habitat.

The ethical trophy hunting of cheetahs requires knowledge of their behaviour and ecology. Disturbing social structures such as shooting females with cubs or eliminating members of a coalition can result in cheetahs resorting to easy prey such as livestock. Ideally, only single males should be shot.

The vast areas covered by individual cheetahs and the thick bush in most parts of Namibia combine to make it notoriously difficult to hunt cheetahs. For this reason, trophy hunting is not currently a threat to the cheetah's survival. Continuous research and monitoring the population is necessary to ensure long-term conservation.

News Flash:

The long-term survival of the cheetah depends on the conservation of a healthy wild population. Namibia, the "Cheetah Capital of the World", is the stronghold for the cheetah's survival. Programmes developed here can be models for use in other countries.

There is a lack of knowledge about the cheetah's status, history, behaviour, biology and ecology. Information concerning the wild cheetah in Namibia and elsewhere in the world needs more publicity.

Outside protected areas, game populations continue to be reduced for food and profit. Cheetahs suffer as a result of reduced prey populations throughout their range.

The loss of suitable habitat due to increasing human populations has forced cheetahs into the remaining fragmented areas. Many cheetah populations are in serious threat of extinction.

Cheetahs are unable to compete with larger predators. This limits their survival in protected game reserves. Most cheetahs are found on unprotected land and compete with farmers' livestock and wildlife.

In Namibia, cheetahs can be legally trapped or killed if they are perceived as a "threat" to life or livelihood. Research has shown that livestock predation by cheetahs is minimal, however some indiscriminate removal continues.

Cheetah Friendly Farming

Namibian farmers practice diverse farming activities that form part of the ecosystem. It is farmers, hunters and game managers who will preserve Namibia's precious ecosystem for future generations to enjoy.

There is no single solution to predator conflicts. Effective predator control and overall farm management requires a variety of integrated management strategies.

Small stock practices

Kraals - Kraaling small stock at night enables monitoring and protection. Sturdy fencing or thorn branches must be tall enough to keep stock in and predators out.

Herder - Keeping a herder with small stock during the day provides additional protection.

Cattle practices

Calving Camps - Close monitoring is made possible by locating calving camps near the homestead. This reduces losses to predation, accidents or other complications in the first few weeks of a calf's life. Larger herd size also discourages predators. Calves under three months of age and heifers (first-time mothers) are most vulnerable to predators. Closer monitoring will reduce losses.

Breeds - Choosing breeds that are more aggressive and allowing horns to grow on cows reduces losses to predators.

Shared practices

Herd Management - Predators such as cheetahs are opportunistic. Management strategies should aim to protect livestock when they are most vulnerable, particularly at night and during birthing seasons. Culling animals that fail to produce or consistently lose calves to predation increases herd production.

Seasonal Births - Seasonal birthing allows intensive monitoring of the calving/lambing herds. Synchronising livestock births with wildlife calving seasons ensures sufficient natural prey when livestock are most vulnerable.

Fencing - Wildlife-friendly farmers use four to five strands of non-barbed galvanised wires for interior livestock fencing. These low fences are not high and leave a large gap along the bottom to allow migration of wildlife through farmlands.

Guard Animals - utilising livestock guardians, such as dogs for small stock and donkeys for cattle reduces Losses. Guard animals need to be healthy and properly trained in order to be effective.

Wildlife - Encouraging and maintaining an adequate density of natural game on the farm provides prey for the cheetah and other predators.

Mission Impossible?

In Africa, property that is owned and managed by farmers can maintain viable populations of animals and natural habitats. It is the careful management of these habitats that holds the key to the future survival of plant and animal species such as the cheetah.

In order to ensure a successful future we need to be responsible custodians of nature. The way land and animals are managed determines the future of all ecosystems. If firm action is taken, our land can recover from any history of poor management.

Profit - Proper management produces financial gains through increased productivity of land, livestock and wildlife.

Nature - When left unaltered nature balances itself. In order to maintain that balance, man must learn to live in harmony with nature. This harmony is obtained through land, livestock and wildlife management.

Land management - The productivity of the land depends on water and soil. Preventing erosion increases the potential for the land to produce food and allows water to penetrate the soil, thus carrying important nutrients to the roots of the plants. We must learn to live within the limits of the scarcity of water in our dry country.

The use of alternative fuels or efficient wood burning stoves and ovens reduces deforestation. Establishing timber plantations and using alternative building materials saves natural forests.

Livestock management - Many farmers use rotational grazing where farmlands are divided into camps. Practicing rotational and seasonal grazing allows used areas time to recover.

Recovery of damaged land occurs faster if it is protected from the impact of overgrazing. Proper herd size is necessary to prevent overgrazing, trampling of the land and reducing predator problems. A balance of grazing and browsing animals reduces the pressure on one vegetation type.

Wildlife management - Allowing wild animals to migrate naturally through farm areas promotes the balance of browsers and grazers, and allows predators their preferred food of wild game. This reduces the temptation to take domestic stock.

Ethical hunters remove older animals while predators also prey on the young, diseased and genetically weak. Together they keep wild herds healthy and in check.

Losses - The balance of nature is tipped through poor land, livestock or wildlife management practices. Financial losses occur when the land cannot support productivity.

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4) CONSERVATION

Conservation is taking care of the environment in which we live. This means using everything wisely so some of it is left for others to use or for our own future use. The things we use are called resources. These can be almost anything: food, the air we breathe, firewood, petrol and zinc roofing panels. Conservationists understand that RESOURCES ARE LIMITED and often scarce and that we must use them wisely. In Namibia, fresh water is one of our scarcest resources.

Conservation also means protecting resources we may not use. Walking around, rather than stepping on a plant, is an act of conservation. Protecting a species like the cheetah from extinction is an act of conservation.

Environmental education encourages the wise use of natural resources including water and land use, waste management and recycling.

Conservation biology is a field of study at universities. It combines several sciences, such as biology, ecology and genetics, to examine why there are so many types of living things on earth and what makes some of them scarce.

VOICE FOR THE CHEETAH

Cheetah Conservation Fund

CCF is currently the only in-situ based cheetah research organisation in the world! The cheetah cannot speak for itself. Researchers, volunteers, farmers and youth are raising voices of support that will carry the cheetah with us through this millennium.

The long-term goal of the Cheetah Conservation Fund is to secure the survival of cheetahs and their ecosystem. CCF continues working through multi-disciplined programmes, establishing systems of management and reducing conflicts between humans and cheetahs. Fieldwork produces data that allows all parties to understand not only the role of the cheetah and other predators, but also the sensitive balance of nature. This understanding assists farmers to develop sound management practices that ensure the ecological balance necessary for increased productivity.

CCF's research, conservation and education programmes promote understanding. Understanding promotes appreciation. Appreciation promotes a willingness to conserve for the future.

Dogs save cheetahs

Livestock guarding dogs have been used for thousands of years to protect cattle, sheep and goats from predator attacks. There are over 20 breeds of guarding dogs. The Anatolian Shepherd, a Turkish breed, was selected as the best candidate for use with small stock in Namibia as they are able to work in vast open spaces without direct guidance. These dogs look similar to the flock, with large rounded heads, floppy ears and short fur. They have a good sense of hearing and smell, a calm temperament and a very loud bark. Anatolians do not herd livestock; they guard them. They are attentive, protective, trustworthy and aggressive towards predatory threats.

Puppies are placed with the stock at eight weeks of age to form a strong bond with the herd. It is important that bonding occurs with the herd and not with humans or other dogs.

Dog owners take the responsibility for the health care of their dog. This includes veterinary check-ups, vaccinations and observation for signs of illness or injuries.

An appropriate diet is necessary for the Anatolian Shepherd. Enough food allows proper growth and a healthy dog. They should never be given raw meat as this could produce a predatory response. They need water during the day when they are out with the herd.

Attentiveness: Acting as a sentry, the Anatolian is sensitive to any changes in the behaviour of the herd.

Protectiveness: If a predator approaches the dog is instantly alert. It places itself between the intruder and the herd, faces the intruder and barks. The dog remains with the herd, thus the herd is always protected.

Trustworthiness: The dog is submissive, investigatory and lacks predatory behaviour.

CCF places puppies with both commercial and communal farmers. Interested farmers can contact CCF to request a puppy.

Farmers as conservationists

Farming alters natural systems, yet farmers can be good conservationists. If the farm is run wisely the land will produce year after year. Farmers collect data that is important for understanding the ecosystem. They measure rainfall, count wildlife and many participate in other census studies. This data is used to develop wildlife-friendly farming practices geared for sustainable use.

Sustainable use practices include:

Allowing wildlife to move freely through the farm and selectively harvesting to preserve a balanced ecosystem.

Keeping livestock numbers low and rotating them through camps to allow recovery of vegetation.

Using non-lethal predator control methods allow predators, prey and livestock to share a well- balanced habitat.

Setting areas of a farm aside as "wild lands" or "buffer zones" to maintain original plants.

We must be responsible custodians of the land and wildlife!!!

Other Voices

There are many different approaches that can be taken to ensure the conservation of a species. Effective conservation requires cooperation. Although cheetah numbers in other countries are not as high as those in Namibia, it is essential to expand and develop research on those populations. CCF is supported by and collaborates with many organisations and researchers to exchange information and standardise methodology.

How does collaboration help the cheetah?

Namibia is fortunate to have a number of organisations dedicated to conservation. The Large Carnivore Management Forum (LCMF) brings together people who have an interest in carnivore conservation. This includes NGO's (non-governmental organisations), MET (Ministry of Environment and Tourism), veterinarians, park managers, researchers and farmers. Policies are discussed and developed for large carnivore management.

In other countries such as Algeria, Iran, Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa and Zimbabwe, individual and organisational efforts focus attention on the cheetah.

Researchers often use game reserves to conduct behavioural observations and population censuses. Visitors assist researchers by reporting carnivore sightings.

The Cheetah Outreach programme in South Africa takes another approach. This organisation promotes awareness of the plight of the cheetah through education programmes and supports CCF through fundraising. Outreach programmes such as this are important tools for increasing public awareness about conservation issues.

The voice for the cheetah is an international one. It extends beyond boundaries and borders. Even countries that do not have wild cheetahs contribute extensively to the conservation of the cheetah by supporting in-situ projects such as CCF. We must be successful for future generations.

A New Home

If there is a suitable relocation site, the first choice is to release cheetahs back into the wild. Healthy "problem animals" (confirmed livestock killers) can be translocated into areas away from livestock, where there is a wild prey base and limited competition with other predators. Namibian cheetahs are occasionally re-located in other African countries to re-establish cheetah populations in reserves.

Re-introduction of predators is difficult and requires special conservation measures. For re-introduction to be successful, livestock, human issues, size of an area, prey base and existing predator populations needs to be considered. The land made available for re-introduction is usually comparatively small in area and therefore can only support a small population of cheetahs.

An approach known as meta-population management is used to manage small animal populations for long-term survival. Meta-population management does not look at country borders but rather what can be done cooperatively to assist the species. Various small populations and their genes are managed as one large unit, and maintained by translocation.

Air Namibia flies cheetahs from Windhoek to the selected re-location site in a 747 aeroplane. Cheetahs travel in specially designed transport crates in the cargo section of the plane, where temperature and pressure are the same as in the passenger section.

The cats are kept for a few weeks in holding areas to acquaint them with their surroundings. Released cheetahs are closely monitored through the use of radio-telemetry (radio-tracking).

Global collaboration, communication and commitment between in-situ and ex-situ conservationists promote the long-term future for the cheetah. A global master plan for the cheetah works towards keeping a healthy and viable wild population and utilising captive populations through managed breeding programmes and education at all levels.

Non-Releasable Cheetahs

Non-releasable cheetahs have behavioural or medical problems that prohibit them from living in the wild. Many people in Namibia keep non-releasable cheetahs as educational animals for tourists under the guidelines of the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. As educational ambassadors, captive cheetahs help people realise the need to save these magnificent animals. Most people will never see wild cheetahs in their natural habitat.

Cheetahs that repeatedly catch livestock are considered "problem animals" and should not be released onto farmlands. Problem animals occur when young cubs have been separated from their mothers and can not learn to hunt, or when an animal is old or sick.

It is not necessary to indiscriminately remove healthy cheetahs from the wild. Removal of wild cheetahs adds to the endangered status of the cheetah, as vital genetic material is lost to the wild forever. Managed cooperative breeding between national and international conservation organisations is an important alternative which allows the genes of wild cheetahs to remain in the wild.

Cheetahs are wild animals and do not make appropriate pets. Although easy to tame, cheetahs maintain wild instincts. In captive situations professional care and management is necessary for the welfare of the cheetah and the well-being of people.

Enclosure size

Large, stimulating enclosures are important for captive animals. Cheetahs are adapted for bursts of high speed and lead active lives by ranging over large areas. Cheetahs that do not get proper exercise are not healthy.

Nutrition

The wild cheetah's diet includes a variety of fresh food, such as whole hare carcass or portions of larger game. Captive cheetah diets must be heavily supplemented with specially formulated vitamins and minerals that are expensive.

Proper health care

Cheetahs can easily get diseases from domestic cats and dogs. To keep captive cheetahs healthy a vaccination schedule under veterinary supervision must be followed.

Environmental enrichment

Environmental Enrichment is the addition of stimuli in the life of a captive animal to encourage natural behaviours. Animal caretakers around the world understand that the encouragement of natural behaviour enhances the well being of captive animals. Stimulation of any of the animal's senses creates an enriched environment. Individual animals may react differently to the same attempt at enrichment.

Feeding meat on bones increases feeding time and encourages chewing. Setting a lure course allows a cheetah the opportunity to run at top speed. This stimulates the cheetah's proper biological functions (muscles, heart and lungs).

Wild cheetahs experience a variety of smells. Adding odours such as spices, or faeces or urine of other animals may stimulate scent marking.

Landscaping techniques provide play trees and rock outcrops giving cheetahs vantage points and areas of security in their environment.

The Role of Zoos

Modern zoos serve as conservation education centres and provide sanctuary for many endangered species. Cooperative breeding, management and research have assisted in re-establishing some species in the wild.

Historically, cheetahs have not bred well in captivity. In recent years, through cooperative research and management in zoos worldwide, a global master plan is producing successful results. If future extinction were to occur with wild cheetahs, this research and maintained captive populations could allow the re-introduction of cheetahs.

Ambassadors

As representatives of the wild cheetah, zoo animals provide the opportunity for hundreds of millions of people around the world to see a cheetah up close.

Through educational programmes, zoos spark the interest of individuals who can support or join projects that will save wild cheetahs.

Zoos, universities, private individuals, governmental and non-governmental organisations support cooperative efforts worldwide. Reproductive, nutritional, medical and behavioural studies, and laboratory analysis are cooperative conservation efforts between captive and wild cheetah.

Zoos contribute to the conservation of wild cheetahs through education, research and support of in-situ work.

To know how to save the cheetah and its habitat we need to understand the animal and its role in the ecosystem. CCF works cooperatively with a variety of institutions to maintain the world's largest cheetah database.

RESEARCH

Cheetah health and reproduction research

CCF maintains an extensive physiological database and Genome Resource Bank (GRB). This data provides information for scientific analysis on cheetah morphology, genetics and disease.

Each cheetah handled by CCF is given a complete health screening. Full data collection including body measurements, blood, faecal and sperm samples are taken from each animal. The GRB stores skin, blood and semen samples. Stored deposits ensure the capacity for future research and assisted reproduction.

The first AI (artificial insemination) cub from frozen Namibian cheetah sperm was produced in the USA in 1996. This was a result of a collaborative effort by the Smithsonian's National Zoological Park, the American Zoo and Aquarium Association's Cheetah Species Survival Plan and CCF.

Cheetah ecology

CCF gathers and analyses data on cheetah and prey movements, home ranges, habitat use and behaviour. One focus is the habitat and prey of cheetah in the Waterberg Conservancy Area.

Game counts are conducted to understand the dynamics of prey on Namibian farms. Volunteers and local community members join the Waterberg Conservancy members for annual waterhole game counts.

Behaviours of Namibian cheetahs are compared to behaviours of cheetahs from other regions. The use of play trees appears to be unique to Namibian cheetahs.

Radio-collared cheetahs are monitored to study their home ranges and movements through farmlands.

Cheetah population biology

This Program gathers and organizes data on cheetah population demographics. Population estimates assist in determining cheetah conservation status and the development of sound management strategies for sustainable utilization.

All cheetahs handled by CCF are marked using ear tags, subcutaneous transponders and/or radio-collars.

Farmers collaborate with CCF and complete sighting reports. This data is important to CCF's long-term monitoring. CCF works with the Namibian government and other non-governmental organizations (NGO's) to develop and implement a scientifically-based nationwide cheetah census.

Human impacts on the cheetah

CCF Maintains a Database of wildlife and livestock management practices. Information relating to agricultural impact, hunting and cheetahs in captivity is gathered and analysed. The impacts of these activities are assessed to develop "best-practice" plans for reducing threats to predators and their prey. Collaborators include government and non-government organizations. The Cheetah View Conservation Biology Field Station is a base for studies of predator-prey interactions and farming practices.

To Link in situ and ex-situ conservation, CCF maintains the International Studbook and initiates cooperation among national and international conservation organizations.

The livestock guard dog programme aims to reduce indiscriminate removals of cheetah by reducing livestock losses. CCF breeds and places Anatolian Shepherd dogs with local farmers.

Schools, Teachers, Learners

CCF Develops outreach school programmes and educational packets are distributed to students and teachers. All schools are welcome to CCF facilities.

Staff members conduct assemblies throughout Namibia. Students are encouraged to become more involved in conservation in school and in their homes. Workshops assist teachers in initiating cheetah conservation and environmental education programmes.

Educational facilities at CCF's headquarters encourage participation in cheetah conservation. The education centre, the visitor centre, and predator-prey ground provide information in an interactive setting. CCF's wilderness camp allow outdoor education and a wilderness experience. A nature trail highlights the farmland ecosystem and the valuable role of predators.

CCF takes a cross-curricular approach, integrating conservation issues into subjects that are required as part of the school syllabus and donates books to schools and libraries.

CCF works with government agencies to incorporate cheetah conservation in the school curriculum.

Outreach

CCF shares information on environmental issues to develop commitment for the survival of the cheetah. Local and international participation is encouraged through outreach programmes and CCF education facilities.

Internships

Internships provide students and graduates the opportunity to participate in CCF research. Interns participate in all aspects of research and education including data collection, analysis and formal presentation.

Global Awareness

International awareness builds support for the cheetah. Research results are published internationally and are presented at professional symposiums and conferences.

The Geo-Cheetah programme launches a toy cheetah between Namibian and overseas schools. Students around the world exchange information while learning about the plight of the cheetah. Sister-school relationships are often formed.

CCF's teacher resource guide and educational packets are supplied to support school programmes nationally and internationally.

Fund raising and awareness events are examples of educational links around the world. CCF has developed regional chapters in several other countries to supports its mission.

Community events

Participatory Community events, such as competitions in art poetry and writing, increase conservation awareness.

Public educational displays are maintained at strategic locations and community events. Displays provide introductory information on the plight of the cheetah and the work conducted by CCF.

CCF staff participate in farmer meetings, local conservancy activities and other related events. Workshops and seminars are conducted to exchange information and develop conservation based farming practices.

Cheetah Conservation Fund Vision Statement

WE SEE A WORLD IN WHICH CHEETAHS LIVE AND FLOURISH IN COEXISTENCE WITH PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT.

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