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Brown EW, Olmsted RA, Martenson JS, O'Brien SJ. 1993.
Exposure to FIV and FIPV in wild and captive cheetahs. Zoo Biology 12, 135-142.

Two RNA-containing viruses, feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV) and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), have been observed to infect cheetahs. Although both viruses cause lethal immunogenetic pathology in domestic cats, only FIPV has documented pathogenesis in cheetahs. We summarize and update here a worldwide survey of serum and plasma from cheetah and other nondomestic felids for antibodies to FIV and FIPV, based on Western blot and immunofluorescence assays. FIPV exposure shows an acute pattern with recognizable outbreaks in several zoological facilities, but is virtually nonexistent in sampled free-ranging populations of cheetahs. FIV is more endemic in certain natural cheetah populations, but infrequent in zoological collections. FIV exposure was also seen in lions, bobcats, leopards, snow leopards, and jaguars. FIV causes T-cell lymphocyte depletion and associated diseases in domestic cats, but there is little direct evidence for FIV pathology in exotic cats to date. Because of the parallels with a high incidence of simian immunodeficiency virus in free-ranging African primates without disease, the cat model may also reflect historic infections that have approached an evolutionary balance between the pathogen and immune defences of their feline host species.

Brown_et_al_1993_Exposure_of_cheetahs_to_FIV_and_FIPV.pdf

Caro TM. 1993.
Behavioral solutions to breeding cheetahs in captivity: insights form the wild. Zoo Biology 12, 19-30.

Knowledge of cheetahs' behavior is increasingly seen as the key to solving the mystery of cheetahs' poor breeding performance in captivity. In the absence of zoos' maintaining systematic records of individuals' behavior during introductions, behavior of free-living animals can be informative. In the wild, most female cheetahs probably mate with males living in small groups or coalitions; thus, zoos may benefit from replicating these social conditions. Provided injuries can be minimized. Relations between free-living coalition members are amicable, and escalated aggression was never witnessed during 4 years of observation. Some antagonism was seen in newly formed trios, although this had disappeared in longer established coalitions. Minor aggression occurred over carcasses, being greater at small and intermediate sized kills than at large ones. In the presence of females, mild intramale aggression was only seen within 1 of 7 coalitions. Free-living females showed similar rates of behavior in the presence of different numbers of males, aside from more frequent growling at large groups. These findings suggest that captive institutions should be less nervous about housing male cheetahs together and introducing females to groups of males for purposes of breeding.

Caro_1993_Behavioral_solutions_to_breeding_cheetahs_in_captivity.pdf

Dierenfeld ES. 1993.
Nutrition of captive cheetahs: food composition and blood parameters. Zoo Biology 12, 143-152.

Diet and nutrition of cheetahs was evaluated through survey, in conjunction with chemical analysis of feed and plasma samples, as pan of a multidisciplinary effort to investigate underlying causes of low reproductive success in North American captive cheetah populations. Cheetahs consumed an average of 1.32 0.4 kg of food daily, containing approximately 1.800 kcal, and maintained an average body mass of 36.7 1.0 kg (n = 34). A commercially prepared horsemeat-based mixture comprised [he dietary staple in 10 of 13 zoos responding to the survey, with additional whole or carcass portions offered 1-2 days per week to maintain variety and provide periodontal stimulation. Seven of 13 respondents fasted animals I day/week: five maintained no fast days. The primary meat product (n = 14 samples) contained: 58% crude protein. 28% crude far. 7% total ash, 52 Iu/kg vitamin E, 9.7 Iu/g vitamin A, and 2.200 mg/kg taurine (dry basis). Mineral content of the same food item was: 1.9% Ca. 10.0 mg/kg Cu, 645.2 m& Fe, 0.089 Mg. 22.6 rns/kg Mn, 1.3% P, 0.4% Na, and 127.8 mg/kg Zn. Nutrient levels, except vitamin E (and possibly Mg), met or exceeded recommendations established for domestic felids. Plasma a-tocopherol, retinol, and taurine (18.1, 1.82, 128.4 mol/L, respectively) concentrations were similar to normaIs for domestic felids, as were mean plasma mineral levels (n = 81: in mEq/L: 5.64 (Ca). 0.03 (Cu), 0.03 (Fe), 2.0 (Mg), 166.0 (Na). 12.3 (P), and 0.026 (Zn)). No gross physiological or dietary nutrient imbalances were evident from this survey.

Dierenfeld_1993_Nutrition_of_captive_cheetahs.pdf

Evermann JF, Laurenson MK, McKeirnan AJ, Caro TM. 1993.
Infectious Disease Surveillance in Captive and Free-Living Cheetahs: An Integral Part of the Species Survival Plan. Zoo Biology 12, 125-133.

During the formulative stages of developing the Species Survival Plan (SSP) for the cheetah, the impact of infectious disease upon its survival in captivity was of prime consideration, together with genetics, nutrition, physiology, and behaviour. This paper summarizes the results of an infectious disease surveillance program, initially designed to monitor the infectious agent associated with clinically normal and clinically ill cheetahs in captivity, but subsequently supplemented with data from free-living cheetahs. The focus was on two viral infections, feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) and feline rhinotracheitis virus. Results indicated that between 1989 and 1991, there was a n increase in the seroprevalence (number antibody-positive animals) of cheetahs to feline coronavirus from 41% to 64% in captivity. During this same time period, there were only two documented cases of FIP in cheetahs in the United States. The results suggest that feline coronavirus (feline enteric coronavirus-feline infectious peritonitis group) or a closely related coronavirus of cheetah is becoming endemic in the captive cheetah population. Further serologic results from 39 free-living cheetahs demonstrated that there was a high seroprevalence (61%) to feline coronavirus, although serum antibody titers were considerably lower than those encountered in captive cheetahs. The observation of a high percentage of free-living cheetahs, which were seropositive to feline herpesvirus (44%), was unexpected, since it has been generally regarded that this infection is primarily associated with cheetahs in captivity.

Evermann_et_al_1993_Cheetah_infectious_disease_surveillance.pdf

Howard JG, Munson L, McAloose D, Kriete M, Bush ME, Wildt DE. 1993.
Comparative evaluation of seminal, vaginal, and rectal bacterial flora in the cheetah and domestic cat.
Zoo Biology 12, 81-96.

To determine the status and potential impact of microorganisms on reproductive health, bacterial cultures were evaluated from cheetah seminal, vaginal, and rectal swabs and the results compared to those from clinically healthy, domestic cats. Aerobic bacteria were isolated in the semen from 26 of the 40(65.0%) cheetahs and 25 of the 27 (92.6%) domestic cats. Gram-negative organisms predominated in the electroejaculates of both species. accounting for >70% of the total bacterial isolates. The most common seminal organism in both species was haemolytic Escherichia coli. Bacteria were isolated from vaginal samples obtained from 49 of the 67 (73.1%) cheetahs and 46 of the 49(93.9%) domestic cats. Gram-negative organisms dominated. representing >63%of the vaginal bacteria. and again hemolytic E. coli was the most prevalent isolate in both species. None of the cheetah or domestic cat vaginal cultures contained Mycoplasma spp. or Ureaplasma spp. Numerous gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria were identified in rectal cultures of 73 cheetahs and 60 domestic cats, but haemolytic E. coli clearly was the most common isolate. Within each species, a comparison between electroejaculates that were positive vs. negative for haemolytic E. coli growth revealed no differences in sperm concentration. sperm motility ratings. or the proportion of structurally abnormal spermatozoa Neutrophils were not detected in any of the 67 felid ejaculates, and the presence of seminal haemolytic E. coli was unrelated to fertility, on the basis of past ability to sire young or fertilize oocytes in vitro. Vaginal cytologic evaluations in both the cheetah and domestic cat indicated that hemolytic E. coli was not associated with a pathologic inflammatory response. Overall fecundity and proven ability to produce young were similar between females producing positive or negative vaginal cultures for E. coli. These findings indicate that commensal bacteria exist in the reproductive tract of the cheetah and domestic cat, and these organisms constitute normal, apparently innocuous bacterial microflora in the semen and vagina.

Howard_et_al_1993_Bacterial_flora_in_cheetah_and_domestic_cat.pdf

Laurenson MK. 1993.
Early Maternal Behavior of Wild Cheetahs: Implications for Captive Husbandry. Zoo Biology 12, 31-43.

Against a background of poor breeding success and cub survival in captive cheetahs, a knowledge of the early maternal behaviour in the wild may yield useful information for comparison with the captive situation. This paper documents the types of lair sites used by mothers to conceal their newborn cubs in the wild situation, and details patterns of maternal behaviour observed during this period. Four kinds of lairs were used by cheetah mothers, and the amount of protection from the elements and predators was assessed for each. Lair type appeared to have little effect on cub survival. Cubs were concealed in lairs for 8.2 weeks on average, although larger litters tended to leave lairs earlier. During this period, cubs were moved to new lairs approximately every 5.6 days. Cubs were left for an average of 9.6 hours while their mothers went hunting, but mothers virtually always returned to them around nightfall, even if they failed to catch any prey. Maternal neglect and cub abandonment, which account for many cub deaths in captivity, are abnormal in the wild, except when prey is very scarce. Improved husbandry techniques, such as the provision of multiple, secluded nest boxes, and remote monitoring conditions should promote breeding

Laurenson_1993_Maternal_behavior_in_Wild_Cheetahs.pdf

Lindburg DG, Durrant BS, Millard SE, Oosterhuis JE. 1993.
Fertility assessment of cheetah males with poor quality semen. Zoo Biology 12, 97-104.

Reports on semen quality of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) indicate that high percentages of abnormal morphs and sperm concentrations, 10 times lower than in domestic cats, are found in all populations. These characteristics are believed to result from unusual genetic homozygosity, hypothesized to have been caused by passage of the species through one or more population bottlenecks during its recent history. In a sample of 12 captive living males, we found semen characteristics to be equal or inferior to those previously reported for all males living in other captive facilities. Ten of these males (83.3%) nevertheless produced pregnancies. Seventeen of 19 pregnancies, resulted from matings during a single oestrus. This examination of the reproductive potential of males having comparatively inferior ejaculate quality supports the suggestion that husbandry programs may be more significant than physiological impairment in causing the low birth rates in captive cheetahs. These results also have implications for ascertaining fertility thresholds in mammalian populations undergoing increased levels of inbreeding as a consequence of habit deterioration.

Lindburg_et_al_1993_Fertility_assessment_of_cheetah_males.pdf

Marker-Kraus L, Grisham J. 1993.
Captive breeding of cheetahs in North American zoos: 1987-1991. Zoo Biology 12, 5-18.

From 1987 to 1991, the North American captive cheetah population increased by 38% (to 266 animals), due to importation and captive breeding. This population constitutes 26% of the world's captive cheetahs and 36% of all reproductively successful animals. Since 1956, 33% of all cubs born in North America occurred during this 5-year period. Because of importation of animals from breeding programs abroad, East African (A. jubatus raineyi) genes have been introduced into the North American cheetah population, and 39% of all cubs born during 1987- 1991 were South African/East African hybrids. Also during this time, the breeding population and effective breeding population increased by 86% and 72.6%, respectively. The incidence of infant mortality decreased from 37% (last recorded for the years 1956 to 1986) to 28% (averaged over 5 years), although infant mortality during the latter period ranged from 15% (for unrelated parents) to 41 % (for related parents). Management recommendations implemented to increase fecundity and population size appear to be successful, although the founder base of the population still has only been increased from 52 cheetahs in 1986 to 72 animals in 1991.

Marker-Kraus_&_Grisham_1993_Captive_breeding_of_cheetahs_in_North_American_zoos.pdf

Munson L. 1993.
Diseases of captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus): results of the Cheetah Council Pathology Survey, 1989-1992.
Zoo Biology 12, 105-124.

Knowledge of the diseases of cheetahs is essential to prevent and treat conditions that can modulate fertility and longevity. Toward this aim, a comprehensive pathology survey was conducted under a directive from the Cheetah Species Survival Plan. To date, 31 adult cheetahs and nine cubs from 16 zoological parks have been evaluated. Also, liver biopsies from 67 female cheetahs from 22 zoological parks were examined. Veno-occlusive disease (VOD) affected 82% of deceased cheetahs and 51% of live female cheetahs, and was the cause of death in nine cheetahs. Glomerulosclerosis and nephrosclerosis affected 84% and 39% of the population, respectively, and caused renal failure in eight cheetahs. The severity of VOD and glomerulosclerosis increased with age, and was not associated with infertility. Chronic gastritis was noted in 91% of the study population, and 95% of these cases also had spiral bacteria. Feline infectious peritonitis caused the death of two cheetahs. Male cheetahs had testicular degeneration, atrophy, and/or spermatogenic arrest, but these cheetahs also had severe systemic illness. Most females did not have reproductive tract lesions that would cause infertility, including those with parovarian cysts. Ovarian histology suggested that infertile cheetahs were not ovulating. Most cubs died from pneumonia or other systemic infections. The results of this study indicate that serious diseases are prevalent in the North American cheetahs, but these diseases do not appear to be the cause of infertility in the population. However, these diseases do limit the life span and well-being of cheetahs in captivity.

Munson_1993_Dieseases_of_captive_cheetah.pdf

Wildt DE, Grisham J. 1993.
Basic research and the cheetah SSP program. Zoo Biology 12, 3-4.

Throughout history, the cheetah has sustained the reputations for being difficult to propagate in captivity. In 1988, at its mid-years meeting in Kansas City, the SSP Committee mandated that all cheetahs in North America be designated as a research population and decided to implement and manage a systematic research program focusing upon basic reproduction, genetics, behaviour, nutrition, and disease.

Wildt_&_Grisham_1993_Cheetah_SSP_program.pdf

Wildt DE, Brown JL, Bush ME, Barone MA, Cooper KA, Grisham J, Howard JG. 1993.
Reproductive status of cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) in North American zoos: the benefits for physiological surveys for strategic planning. Zoo Biology 12, 45-80.

Wildt_et_al_1993_Reproductive_status_of_cheetahs_in_North_American_zoos.pdf