Palma, L., Beja, P., and Rodrigues, M. 1999.
The use of sighting data to analyse Iberian lynx habitat and distribution.
Journal of Applied Ecology 36: 812-824.

1. Over a large part of its very restricted and fragmented range, Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus occur in remote mountainous country at low density, where the only information about the species comprises records of incidental sightings obtained by inquiry. In this study we developed an approach for quantifying lynx-habitat relationships and distribution patterns from sighting data, using records from western Algarve (Portugal) in 1990-95. 2. Habitat was described in terms of land cover, topography, human disturbance and rabbit abundance, in 25-km2 cells surrounding lynx sightings and at random locations within the study area. 3. Lynx sightings were consistently associated with predictable habitat features. Sighting probabilities estimated from a logistic regression model increased with the abundance of rabbits and the proportion of land covered by tall Mediterranean maquis, and declined with road density and the amount of developed land. This model identified correctly 85.7% of lynx sightings; at the same time only 20.7% of the random locations were misclassified. 4. Indices of human presence were never associated positively with lynx sightings, suggesting that observation patterns were not influenced by the spatial distribution of potential observers. 5. Kriging was used to interpolate spatially between sighting probabilities derived from the logistic model in order to produce a map of sighting potential for the Iberian lynx in western Algarve. Jack-knife resampling assessed the accuracy of this map. Three well-defined areas of high sighting potential were identified, probably representing the lynx core areas in this region. 6. Our analysis of lynx sighting records suggests that these data may provide a first approximation to lynx habitat and distribution when further information is lacking. The application of this approach to other rare and reclusive species is discussed.

Palma_et_al_1999_Analysis_of_Iberian_lynx_sightings.pdf

Palomares, F. 1994.
La presencia del Lince Ibérico puede incrementar la abundancia de conejos. Deporte y naturaleza 3: 20-21.

The presence of the Iberian lynx can increase the abundance of rabbits: An article will soon appear in a scientific journal of the Society of Conservation Biology that is not only for interests for scientists working on the subject. The title of the article is "Positive effects on game species of top predators by controlling smaller predator populations: an example with lynx, mongooses and rabbits". In the following lines the most significant results of this work are described.

Palomares_1994_Lince_iberico_y_abundancia_de_conejos.pdf

Palomares, F. 2001.
Vegetation structure and prey abundance requirements of the Iberian lynx: implications for the design of reserves and corridors.
Journal of Applied Ecology 38: 9-18.

1. Habitat alteration and fragmentation are two of the greatest threats to biodiversity. The conservation of most species in highly encroached areas requires reserves that are connected by suitable habitat corridors to increase the effectiveness of the area under protection. However, the quality required for such corridors is still debated. This study investigated the habitat characteristics (vegetation structure and prey abundance) of sites used by resident and dispersing Iberian lynx in south-western Spain. 2. Vegetation structure and an index of rabbit abundance (the staple prey of lynx) were measured at sites used by radio-collared lynx in 1996 and 1997. Data from 128 plots used by resident lynx and 310 plots used by dispersing individuals were compared with data from 162 randomly located plots in sites considered to be unused by lynx. 3. Resident sites had a lower percentage of tree cover, shorter tree height, higher percentage of tall shrub cover, higher percentage of overall understorey and higher number of rabbit pellets than both dispersal and unused sites. The height of the short shrub layer was taller and the rabbit abundance index was higher in dispersing sites than in unused sites. 4. Gender did not affect habitat selection by lynx. During dispersal, lynx frequently (50% of cases) used vegetation patches narrower than 300 m. In these cases, sites used by lynx had higher understorey cover and taller shrub height than adjacent unused sites. The percentage of short shrub cover used by lynx increased with the length of time taken to disperse; this was the only variable that changed over time. 5. Range size of resident individuals declined significantly with the index of rabbit abundance but increased with the percentage of short shrub cover. Both variables were good predictors of range size. 6. The study shows that corridors connecting reserves do not have to be prime habitats; they can even support moderate habitat degradation due to human activity. This result has implications both for the conservation of existing corridors, and for the restoration of the many corridors between reserves that have been lost.

Palomares_2001_Characteristics_of_lynx_habitats.pdf

Palomares, F. 2001.
Comparison of 3 methods to estimate rabbit abundance in a Mediterranean environment.
Wildlife Society Bulletin 29(2): 578-585.

European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are of special concern, for different reasons. They are prey of many predators in Mediterranean ecosystems, an important game species, and even a pest that causes economic losses. Hence, estimate of population abundance is a major interest for conservation management and control progams. I estimated abundance of European rabbits in 6 different habitats by line transect sampling, pellet count, and warren count. Rabbits were most abundant in Mediterranean scrubland, closely followed by ash stands. Pastureland, lentiscus in plantations, and pine plantations had 3, 7, and 27 times fewer rabbits than the Mediterranean scrubland respectively. Abundance determined by pellet counts corroborated results obtained by line transect sampling, except in the Mediterranean scrubland habitat, where number of pellets was less than expected. There was a significant correlation between number of pellets and rabbit density when data from the Mediterranean scrubland were replaced by data from pellet counts performed at the edge of the Mediterranean scrubland. Number (mean+/-SE) of warrens/100 m of transect was greatest for Mediterranean scrubland (3.5+/-0.5) and least for pastureland (0.6+/-0.2). Number of entrances/warren also differed among habitats; warrens in the pastureland had more entrances (11+/-1.2) than warrens in other habitats (between 5.5+/-0.6 and 9.0+/-1.2). Entrances were used more during spring (54.8%+/-4.3 - 75.6%+/-2.4) than during summer; the only habitat where entrances were used regularly in summer was the pastureland (54.6%+/-4.2 of entrances). Counting pellets and warrens can provide reliable estimates of rabbit abundance.

Palomares_2001_Methods_to_estimate_rabbit_abundance.pdf

Palomares, F. 2002.
Herpestes ichneumon (Linnaeus, 1758), Meloncillo.
In: Atlas de los Mamíferos Terrestres de España: 286-289. Palomo, L. J. and Gisbert, J.(Eds.). Madrid: DGCNA-MIMAM, SECEM, SECEMU.

Basic information on the Egyptian mongoose in Spain: Taxonomy, description, distribution, habitat, reproduction, feeding habits, abundance, social organization & behaviour, threats, and other subjects.

Palomares_2002_Herpestes_ichneumon_en_Espana_Atlas_Mamiferos.pdf

Palomares, F. 2003.
The negative impact of heavy rains on the abundance of a Mediterranean population of European rabbits.
Mammalian Biology 68: 224-234.

I studied the effects of relatively common heavy rains on inter-annual variations in rabbit density in four habitats of Doñana National Park and surrounding areas (southwestern Spain) during several years when rainfall was either lower or higher than average. I estimated spring and autumn rabbit densitites by line transect sampling between autumn 1993 and autumn 1998, and counted rabbit warrens and entrances in two of the habitats (one with and the other without scrubland vegetation) in 1995, 1996, and 1997. Rabbit density significantly decreased in all habitats during the rainy years, densities being on average 5.3 and 4.6 times lower for spring and autumn censuses, respectively. Both number of warrens and entrances significantly decreased after two consecutive years of heavy rain in both habitat types, although in the scrubland habitats some recovery was observed during the second consecutive year of heavy rains. The area where warrens were apparently free of the effects of rains was only between 2.7 and 3.8% in the open habitat and 21.5% in the scrubland. At least for the open habitat, no clear relationship was observed between the height above sea level and whether warrens were affected by rain or not. The results indicate that heavy rains may be an important factor decreasing rabbit density, at least in flat areas, by negatively acting on warrens during the breeding period.

Palomares_2003_Negative_impact_of_heavy_rains_on_rabbits.pdf

Palomares, F. 2003.
Warren building by European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in relation to cover availability in a sandy area.
J. Zool. , Lond. 259: 63-67.

Warrens of the wild European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus are of concern in the Iberian Peninsula as a way to recover rabbit populations. However, there are no studies on the selection of sites where rabbits build their warrens. Between 1995 and 1997, in addition to warren size (number of entrances), the vegetation characteristics and the occurrence of tree roots in the ground surface occupied by warren entrances in Mediterranean scrubland and pastureland habitats were recorded in a sandy area of the Doñana National Park. Pastureland warrens were about twice as large as warrens in Mediterranean scrubland, and 1.8-1.4 times larger in the first study year than in the other 2 years. Warrens in pastureland were built more between tree roots (13.3-17.8%) than those built in Mediterranean scrubland (0.7-1.8%). In Mediterranean scrubland, most of the ground surface occupied by warren entrances was under tall shrubs (79.7-87.9%), with some under short shrubs (4.5-7.4%). In pastureland, these figures were 2.0-3.8% for tall shrubs, and 17.2-19.8% for short shrubs. Warrens were built between tree roots significantly less than expected in the Mediterranean scrubland, and slightly more than expected in the pastureland. Whereas warren surface was occupied by short shrubs significantly less than expected in the Mediterranean scrubland, the opposite pattern occurred in the pastureland; however, in both habitats tall shrubs were significantly preferred. These results suggest that rabbits may seek protection against collapsing warrens by selecting sites with some supporting structures such as the roots of trees or shrubs. Scrubland vegetation (preferably tall shrubs) should be favoured for medium- and long-term habitat management of areas aimed at supporting large rabbit populations. Furthermore, in sandy areas, some kind of stable ground support and external protection should be provided when creating artificial warrens for rabbits.

Palomares_2003_Warren_building_by_European_rabbits.pdf

Palomares, F. and Delibes, M. 1997.
Predation upon European rabbits and their use of open and closed patches in Mediterranean habitats.
Oikos 80(2): 407-410.

Response to the paper of Jaksic & Soriguer 1981.

Palomares_&_Delibes_1997_Predation_upon_rabbits_and_their_habiat_use.pdf

Palomares, F., Rodriguez, A., Laffitte, R., and Delibes, M. 1991.
The Status and Distribution of the Iberian Lynx Felis pardina (Temminck) in Coto Donana Area, SW Spain.
Biol. Conserv. 57: 159-169.

The distribution and relative abundance of the Iberian lynx Felis pardina at the Donana National Park and its surroundings (SW Spain) have been determined by tracks and faeces by searching in 5x5 km squares. Two density categories distiguish sampling units where lynx reproductions is or is not estimated to occur. Absolute abundance was estimated in two ways by comparing with previous radiotelemetric studies. The population is made up of no more than 50 individuals, divided into two nuclei relatively isolated one from the other. High relative density mostly coincided with protected areas. Lynx presence positively correlated with shrub cover and rabbit abundance. The lynx population undergoes high unnatural mortality rates. Conservation proposals are noted.

Palomares_et_al_1991_Status_and_distribution_of_the_Iberian_lynx.pdf

Palomares, F., Gaona, P., Ferreras, P., and Delibes, M. 1995.
Positive Effects on Game Species of Top Predators by Controlling Smaller Predator Populations: An Example with Lynx, Mongooses, and Rabbits.
Conservation Biology 9(2): 295-305.

Top predators have often been persecuted because of their supposed negative effects on species of economic concern on which they feed. In some cases, however, they may actually benefit their prey through intraguild predation on other smaller predators that share the prey. In each of the representative situations, in one of which lynx were present and in the other absent, we (1) estimated gross numbers of rabbits taken by lynx and Egyptian mongooses (smaller predators that are themselves preyed upon by lynx); (2) simulated size-structured rabbit populations of different densities, taking into account the reproductive value of the individuals taken by predators; and (3) estimated actual rabbit densities. Numbers of rabbits taken by predators during a year were found to be between 4.8 and 95 times greater when lynx were not present. After a year; rabbit population growth for an initial rabbit density of 15/ha was between 12% and 22% lower when lynx were not present. For lower initial rabbit densities, the positive effect of lynx presence on rabbits was greater: Actual rabbit densities in the areas used by lynx were 2-4 times higher than in areas not used by lynx, even though these areas were similar or identical in habitat composition These results support the suggestion that removal of top predators may sometimes have a negative effect on prey populations of human economic concern.

Palomares_et_al_1995_Positive_effects_on_game_species_of_top_predators.pdf

Palomares, F., Calzada, J., and Revilla, E. 1996.
El manejo del hábitat y la abundancia de conejos: diferencias entre dos áreas potencialmente idénticas.
Revista Florestal 9(1): 201-210.

Spatial distribution and relative abundance of rabbits, Oryctolagus cuniculus, were studied in two adjacent patches which experienced different vegetation management. The two patches had similar soil types, ground water levels, and vegetation before management. In 1970, all the vegetatio (except for cork oaks and wild olive trees) from one patch was removed, creating agricultural land. The control patch is degraded autochthonous forest and the treatment patch is pastureland. In each patch 4 transects (between 900 and 3000 m long) were surveyed. Rabbit pellets were between 1.6 and 2.0 times more abundant in the control patch than in the treatment area. Warrens were between 5.6 and 7.3 times more common in the control than in the treatment patch, although entrances were only between 1.1 and 1.7 times more common in the control patch. The distribution of rabbits was also more even in the control pathc than in the treatment area. Hares, Lepus granatensis, were found in the treatment patch (1.3 hares/km), but none was sighted in the control patch.

Palomares_et_al_1996_Manejo_del_habitat_del_conejo.pdf

Palomares, F., Delibes, M., Ferreras, P., and Gaona, P. 1996.
Mesopredator Release and Prey Abundance: Reply to Litvaitis and Villafuerte.
Conservation Biology 10(7): 678-679.

Litvaitis and Villafuerte (this issue) disagree with interpretation of the results of our study investigating the effect of top predator presence on small game populations (Palomares et al. 1995, Conservation Biology 9: 295-305). We found that the presence of a top predator (Iberian lynx) benefited small game populations (rabbits) because the former limits populations of some other smaller predators (Egyptian mongooses) that also prey upon the game species. This is the reply to Litvaitis and Villafuerte.

Palomares_et_al_1996_Mesopredator_release_and_prey_abundance.pdf

Palomares, F., Ferreras, P., Fedriani, J. M., and Delibes, M. 1996.
Spatial relationships between Iberian lynx and other carnivores in an area of south-western Spain.
Journal of Applied Ecology 33: 5-13.

1. Spatial relationships between Iberian Iynx and other carnivores were studied by radio-tracking and/or track censusing in two adjacent areas of Donana (south-western Spain). 2. Both radio-tracking and track censusing showed that lynx were restricted to an undisturbed area of Pistacia lentiscus shrubs called Matasgordas. Minimum and maximum lynx density in Matasgordas were estimated as 0,55 and 0.75 ind. km2. 3. Egyptian mongoose tracks were mainly detected outside Matasgordas (83% of tracks), European badger tracks were detected most often inside Matasgordas (76% of tracks), and red fox tracks were frequently detected both outside (54%) and inside (46%) Matasgordas. Surveys of tracks and faeces undertaken in other 14 areas where P. lentiscus shrubs also dominated corroborated the census data obtained inside and outside Matasgordas. 4. Trapping and radio-tracking of mongooses and common genets indicated that both species avoided use of Matasgordas. They were almost exclusively trapped (24 out of 25 mongooses and all of 11 genets) and mainly radio-located (94,5% and 95.4% of times, for mongooses and genets, respectively). In the areas of P. lentiscus shrubs situated outside Matasgordas. Their densities were estimated as 0.2 and 0.03 ind. km2 inside, and as 2.0 and 0.7 ind. km2 outside Matasgordas for mongooses and genets, respectively. 5. Lynx may kill mongooses, genets, and foxes; thus, the avoidance of Matasgordas by smaller carnivores (mongooses and genets) could be related to the risk of Iynx predation. It is suggested that the decline of the lynx in the Donana area may have caused the increase in the population sire of smaller, previously rarer carnivores. 6. The true relationship between lynx and foxes remains unclear, and badgers were apparently indifferent to lynx presence or absence.

Palomares_et_al_1996_Spatial_relationships_between_carnivores.pdf

Palomares, F., Ferreras, P., Travaini, A., and Delibes, M. 1998.
Co-existence between Iberian lynx and Egyptian mongooses: Estimating interaction strength by structural equation modelling and testing by an observational study.
Journal of Animal Ecology 67: 967-978.

1. We used path analysis to investigate the causal relationships between Iberian lynx and Egyptian mongoose track numbers, and to estimate the direct effect of the former on the latter in the Doñana area, south-western Spain. Relative abundance of rabbits, shrub cover and protection level were also considered in the path analysis. 2. An observational study consisting of a repeated track survey with a split-plot design was also carried out between 1990 and 1996 to independently test the results obtained by path analysis. 3. Maximum likelihood ratio tests of the goodness-of-fit of the model to the data and other indices used all indicated that the proposed theoretical model depicting the relationships among variables was adequate. Egyptian mongooses suffered a significant direct negative effect from lynx, and rabbits and protection level positively, and significantly affected lynx track abundance; rabbits were also significantly affected by shrub cover (all these standardized partial correlation coefficients ranged from 0.34 to 0.41). Shrub cover did not directly affect either lynx or mongoose tracks. 4. Relatively important indirect effects were found between shrubs and lynx (0.12), and between rabbits and mongooses (-0.14), and protection and mongooses (-0.17). The two latter non-intuitive effects were through the lynx path, as a consequence of the negative direct influence of lynx on mongooses. 5. The repeated track censuses confirmed that lynx presence significantly affects number of mongoose tracks. In areas without lynx, mean number of mongoose tracks were 3.6 times higher than in areas with lynx. 6. It remains an interesting question which of several proposed hypotheses explains co-existence of both species in south-western Spain.

Palomares_et_al_1998_Lynx-mongoose_co-existence.pdf

Palomares, F., Delibes, M., Ferreras, P., Fedriani, J. M., Calzada, J., and Revilla, E. 2000.
Iberian lynx in a fragmented landscape: Predispersal, dispersal, and postdispersal habitats.
Conservation Biology 14(3): 809-818. (with Spanish summary)

Applied conservation biology must provide solutions for the conservation of species in modern landscapes, where prime habitats are being continuously fragmented and altered and animals are restricted to small, nonviable populations. We studied habitat selection in a fragmented population of endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) by examining 14 years of radiotracking data obtained from lynx trapped in two different source areas. Habitat selection was studied independently for predispersal lynx in the source areas, for dispersing individuals through the region, and for postdispersing animals, most of which settled far from their point of origin. A mulitvariate analysis of variance showed that habitat use differed significantly among these phases and between area of origin, but not between sexes. The habitat type most used, and best represented within home ranges, was the mediterranean scrubland. Pine plantations were also important during and after dispersal. The rst of the habitats were either avoided (open habitats) or used according to availability (pine and eucalyptus plantations) by dispersing lynx. Differences due to lynx origin were detected only during predispersal and dispersal and were observed because animals form each area had different habitat availability. Lynx with established territories did not use areas at random. They occupied patches of mediterranean scrubland more often than would be expected from scrubland availibility during predispersal; the rest of the habitats were included within rome ranges less than would be expected from their availability in the landscape. Results indicate that dispersing animals may use habitats of lower quality than habitats used by resident individuals, which suggests that conservation strategies applied across regions might be a viable objective.

Palomares_et_al_2000_Habitat_selection_by_Iberian_lynx.pdf

Palomares, F., Delibes, M., Revilla, E., Calzada, J., and Fedriani, J. M. 2001.
Spatial ecology of Iberian lynx and abundance of European rabbits in southwestern Spain.
Wildlife Monographs 148, 1-36. 2001.

Spatial ecology and diet of Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) and the abundance of its main prey, the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), were studied in southwestern Spain from December 1992 to December 1996 when a decline in rabbit populations occurred. Our objectives were to relate spatial ecology of lynx to rabbit abundance, water availability, and protection from human disturbance. Rabbits were almost the sole prey of lynx; rabbit remains were present in 99.2 % (n=1,171) of feces analyzed.

Palomares_et_al_2001_Spatial_ecology_of_Iberian_lynx_and_rabbit_abundance.pdf

Palomares, F., Godoy, J. A., Piriz, A., O'Brien, S. J., and Johnson, W. E. 2002.
Faecal genetic analysis to determine the presence and distribution of elusive carnivores: design and feasibility for the Iberian lynx.
Molecular Ecology 11: 2171-2182.

Noninvasive methods using genetic markers have been suggested as ways to overcome difficulties associated with documenting the presence of elusive species. We present and assess a novel, reliable and effective molecular genetic technique for the unequivocal genetic identification of faeces from the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus). From mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) cytochrome b and D-loop region sequences, we designed four species-specific primers (for products 130-161 bp long) that were considered to be likely to amplify degraded DNA. We compared two DNA extraction methods, various DNA amplification conditions and the robustness and specificity of the primer pairs with 87 lynx samples from 5 potentially different lynx populations and with 328 samples of other carnivore species. The utility of the identification technique was tested with faeces of different ages, with faeces from controlled field experiments, and with faeces collected from locales with possible lynx populations from throughout the state of Andalusia, Spain (8052 km2). Faecal mtDNA extraction was more efficient using PBS wash of the faeces instead of a faeces homogenate. Our assay increased from 92.6 to 99% efficiency with a second amplification and a reduction in template concentration to overcome polymerase chain reaction (PCR) inhibition. Our assay never produced false positives, and correctly identified all lynx faeces. Of 252 faeces samples of unknown species collected throughout Andalusia, 26.6% (from three different areas) were classified as Iberian lynx, 1.4% showed evidence of PCR inhibition and 1.2% were of uncertain origin. This method has proven to be a reliable technique that can be incorporated into large-scale surveys of Iberian lynx populations and exemplifies an approach that can easily be extended to other species.

Palomares_et_al_2002_Faecal_genetic_analysis_to_determine_species_presence.pdf

Palomares, F., Delibes, M., Ferreras, P., Aldama, J. J., Revilla, E., Calzada, J., and Fernandez, N. 2003.
Estructura de la metapoblación de linces de Doñana.
In: In Memoriam al Prof. Dr. Isidoro Ruíz Martínez: 505-526. Perez Jimenez, J. M.(Ed.). Universidad de Jaén, Jaén.

The structure of the Doñana Iberian lynx metapopulation was studied using information from resident and dispersing individual radio-tracked between 1984 and 2001. Resident lynx were in 9 different nuclei of extension ranging from 260 to more than 5900 ha. Dispersing lynx connected these nuclei. The total surface occupied by resident lynx was 18230 ha. Three nuclei were inside the Doñana National Park, 4 total or partially within the Doñana Natural Park, and 2 in non-protected areas. A total of 19 potential reproduction territories were identified, distributed between the 9 nuclei. Two nuclei included 5 territories, other 2 nucleus 2 territories and the remainders only one territory. On average, the territories were 867 ha (range=210-3168). Ten (53%) of territories were within the Doñana National Park, 4 (21%) within the Natural Park, 3 (16%) between the Natural Park and non-protected areas, and 2 (10%) in non-protected areas. There are not resident lynx in all the areas of optimal vegetation for the species, which might be due to rabbit scarcity and high human disturbance. Not all territories and nucleus have been always occupied by lynx, which is in accordance with metapopulation theory. A census carried out in summer-autumn 2001 showed absence of tracks in 5 territories (2 of them belonging to nucleus with only a territory). The resident lynx did not reproduce every year as evidence of reproduction was only found in six of the territories.

Palomares_et_al_2003_Estructura_metapoblacion_de_linces_de_Donana.pdf

Palomares, F., Revilla, E., Calzada, J., Fernandez, N., and Delibes, M. 2005.
Reproduction and pre-dispersal survival of Iberian lynx in a subpopulation of the Doñana National Park.
Biol. Conserv. 122: 53-59.

Little is known about the reproduction of the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) even though it is the most endangered felid in the world. We studied during 9 years several reproductive parameters of the Iberian lynx in one of the subpopulations situated in Doñana National Park (south-western Spain), by means of radio-tracking, direct observations and photo-trapping. The potential breeding subpopulation was usually composed of 3 adult females, which bred 83% of the total possible 29 female-reproductive year. The minimum total number of cubs born during the study was 64 (7.7 ± 0.69 per year). There was no correlation between the number of cubs born or number of breeding females and population size of European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus, the main prey of the lynx). All known births (n = 16) occurred in March except one in April and another in June. Mean litter size was 3.0 ± 0.16 (n = 16, range = 2-4). Sex-ratio (n = 59 cubs) was 1.03:1.00 (females:males). Nevertheless, the commonest picture was a female with 2 cubs older than 3 months. Altogether, at age of 3 months, 75% of cubs survived. Number of lynx alive at 10 months old and before dispersing was 69% and 57%, respectively. Sex did not affect survival for any age. Normally, it was not possible to know the causes ofthe death of cubs younger than 3 months. Survival at this age was not related with mother, mother age, or rabbit abundance. All females that bred were older than 3 years. The age of last reproduction was 9 years. For 3 females that were tracked during almost their complete reproductive life, the life time reproductive output was between 11 and 19 cubs. Iberian lynx reproductive parameters did not respond to wide changes in prey abundance during the study. Conservation plans considering the extraction of cubs with a low survival probability should be considered by managers, for instance, in translocation campaigns.

Palomares_et_al_2005_Reproduction_and_pre-dispersal_survival_of_Iberian_lynx.pdf

Pech, R. P. and Hood, G. M. 1998.
Foxes, rabbits, alternative prey and rabbit calicivirus disease: consequences of a new biological control agent for an outbreaking species in Australia.
Journal of Applied Ecology 35: 434-453.

1. Rabbit calicivirus disease (RCD; also known as rabbit haemorrhagic disease) has been introduced recently as a biocontrol agent for rabbits in Australia. The consequences for fox populations that use rabbits as primary prey, for populations of alternative prey, and for pastures, were examined using a model for rabbit-and fox-prone areas of semi-arid southern Australia. 2. Existing data were used to quantify the interactions of foxes, rabbits and pasture. A generic model for predation on native herbivores ws constructed by modifying the density-dependent (Type III) functional response of foxes to rabbits to a depensatory (Type II) response that is appropriate for alternative prey. Similar dependence on pasture biomass was assumed for the dynamics of both rabbits and alternative prey in order to identify clearly the consequences of differing predation. In the absence of quantitative data for Australian conditions, the epidemiology of RCD ws simulated empirically to mimic a range of potential patterns of occurrence. 3. For semi-arid Australia the model predicts that as the frequency and intensity of RCD epizootics increases: (i) the mean abundance of rabbits will deline, as will the frequency of eruptions fo rabbits; (ii) there may be little increase in mean pasture biomass and a small decrease in periods of very low pasture biomass when competition between herbivores is most intense; (iii) the mean abundance of foxes will decline; (iv) there will be a reduced frequency of occasions when rabbit density is low but fox density is high due to a lag in the response of predator populations; and (v) there is potential for an increase in the mean abundance of alternative prey and in the proportion of time their density exceeds a threshold comparable to that currently required for eruption of rabbits.

Pech_&_Hood_1998_Foxes_rabbits_and_alternative_prey.pdf

Pedrono, M., Smith, L. L., Clobert, J., Massot, M., and Sarrazin, F. 2004.
Wild-captive metapopulation viability analysis.
Biological Conservation 119: 463-473.

We developed an interactive management model for wild and captive populations of the ploughshare tortoise or angonoka, Geochelone yniphora. Interactive management is based on the translocation of individuals between wild and captive populations to simulate a metapopulation. Demographic parameters of one captive and two wild populations of this rare tortoise were used to conduct a metapopulation viability analysis (MVA). The effectiveness of the conservation strategy proposed for this species was then evaluated by modifying the probability of extinction and growth of the metapopulation over a fixed period of time. Several alternative scenarios of interactive management were then tested and ranked in terms of their effect on the viability of the metapopulation. The model predicted that catastrophic events such as bush fires would likely have a negative effect on the future of remaining wild populations. However, the model also predicted that the use of captive-born offspring to establish additional wild populations would decrease the risk of extinction of the metapopulation as a whole. We believe that, when supported by sound knowledge of the demographic parameters of a species, the use of MVA as part of an interactive management program can be an effective conservation tool that allows assessment of the probable response of both captive and wild populations to different management alternatives. One of the most interesting aspects of this interactive management approach is the link between in situ and ex situ conservation.

Pedrono_et_al_2004_Wild-captive_metapopulation_viability_analysis.pdf

Perez, J. M. and Palma, R. L. 2001.
A new species of Felicola (Phthiraptera: Trichodectidae) from the endangered Iberian lynx: another reason to ensure its survival.
Biodiversity and Conservation 10: 929-937.

A new chewing louse species, Felicola (Lorisicola) isidoroi, is described and illustrated from a male Iberian lynx, Lynx pardinus (Carnivora: Felidae) in southern Spain. Although the new species is based only on a single adult male, it was felt that the scarcity of the host and the distinctiveness of the louse warranted its description. Considering the high degree of host-specificity of this group of lice, the current conservation status of the host as the most vulnerable felid species in the world, and the low prevalence shown by the new louse, we propose the status of endangered for the louse species also. A list of parasites recorded on Lynx pardinus and other carnivore hosts from the Iberian Peninsula is given, and their host-specificity is discussed.

Perez_&_Palma_2001_New_Phthiraptera_species_of_Iberian_lynx.pdf

Perez, J., Calzada, J., Leon-Vizcaino, L., Cubero, M. J., Velarde, J., and Mozos, E. 2001.
Tuberculosis in an Iberian lynx (Lynx pardina).
Veterinary Record 148: 414-415.

Tuberculosis has been described occasionally in wild felines in their natural habitat for example, in feral cats from New Zealand, in two African lionesses and in a cheetah from the Kruger National Park in South Africa. Some cases have also been reported from lions and leopards from zoo collections. Recently, Mycobacterium bovis was identified by PCR from samples of the right elbow of an adult Iberian lynx from the Doñana National Park (Briones and others 2000). This short communication describes the necropsy findings of the same lynx.

Perez_et_al_2001_Tuberculosis_in_Iberian_lynx.pdf

Pires, A. E. and Fernandes, M. L. 2003.
Last lynxes in Portugal? Molecular approaches in a pre-extinction scenario.
Conservation Genetics 4(4): 525-532.

The Iberian lynx is the most threatened felid in the world and has suffered a decline throughout its range. Effective monitoring of the species' presence is essential. Fieldwork in previously identified areas of lynx occurrence in Portugal has resulted in the collection of 104 possible lynx scats. Recently, there has been little or no evidence of lynx presence and scats could be confused with others from more abundant carnivores such as wildcat, fox and dog. In order to confirm or not exclude the presence of the species, identification of scats was performed through the amplification of lynx-specific mitochondrial DNA sequences. Two samples collected in Malcata Natural Reserve in 1997 were identified as lynx. This is the most recent and reliable proof of lynx presence in Portugal. Given the territorial behavior of lynx, stable resident populations would have produced a higher proportion of positively identified scats. Local extinctions might have taken place, and this genetic data supports a suspected national preextinction scenario for the species. Genetic analysis using a non-invasive approach has proved to be an informative part of the lynx monitoring program. Technical problems faced and overcome are also presented.

Pires_&_Fernandes_2003_Preextinction_scenario_of_the_lynxes_in_Portugal.pdf

Pulliainen, E. 1981.
Winter diet of Felis lynx in SE Finland as compared with the nutrition of other northern lynxes.
Z. Saeugetierk. 46(4): 249-259.

The contents of 88 stomachs and 45 intestines of F. lynx L. killed in winter in southeastern Finland, where no roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.) were available, were studied. Of every 5 digestive tracts, 4 contained remains of hare, which accounted for 86% of the weight of the stomach contents, the rest consisting of domestic and ranch animals, a red fox, small rodents, tetraonids and a redpoll. No significant dietary difference was found between the sexes. Support was noted for the theory that female lynx are small because of their low total energy requirements and their ability to channel large amounts of excess energy into reproduction and the males are large as a result of sexual selection. A literature review shows that F. lynx hunts roe deer when available and its large body size may thus be an adaptation to the use of roe deer as a food, while the reduced body size of F. pardina Oken would be an adaptation to the use of rabbit- sized prey in warm climates. In northern North America, where there are no mammals of the size of the roe deer available, F. canadensis Kerr, similar in size to F. pardina, feeds mainly on snowshoe hares.

Pulliainen_1981_Winter_diet_of_lynx_in_Finland.pdf

Queney, G., Ferrand, N., Marchandeau, S., Azevedo, M., Mougel, F., Branco, M., and Monnerot, M. 2000.
Absence of a genetic bottleneck in a wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) population exposed to a severe viral epizootic.
Molecular Ecology 9: 1253-1264.

Infectious diseases and their demographic consequences are thought to influence the genetic diversity of populations. In Europe, during the last 50 years, the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) has suffered two important viral epizootics: myxomatosis and rabbit viral haemorraghic disease (RVHD). Although mortality rates were very high, the impact of these diseases on genetic diversity has never been assessed directly. The subject of this paper is a wild rabbit population in France, which has been studied since the beginning of the 1980s. The first outbreak of RVHD occurred in 1995 and provoked a demographic crash. The population, sampled for the first time in 1982 and 1994, was sampled again at the end of 1996 to examine the impact of the epizootic on genetic diversity. In spite of the observed high mortality rate (» 90%), analysis of 14 polymorphic loci (allozymes and microsatellites) showed no loss in genetic diversity after the epizootic. Determination of temporal changes in allele frequencies indicated that the population evolved under genetic drift. The temporal method of Waples demonstrated a significant decrease in the effective population size (Ne) correlated with the demographic crash due to the epizootic. However, the population had only been studied for two generations after the epizootic and the remnant population size probably stayed high enough (» 50 individuals) to keep its genetic diversity at the precrash level. These results suggest that, contrary to what is usually thought and in spite of the subsequent high mortality rates, past epizootics (especially myxomatosis) may have had little effect on the genetic diversity of wild rabbit populations in Europe.

Queney_et_al_2000_Genetic_bottleneck_and_viral_epizootic_in_wild_rabbit.pdf

Queney, G., Ferrand, N., Weiss, S., Mougel, F., and Monnerot, M. 2001.
Stationary distributions of microsatellite loci between divergent population groups of the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus).
Mol. Biol. Evol. 18(12): 2169-2178.

Queney_et_al_2001_Microsatellite_loci_between_population_groups_of_rabbit.pdf