Mainland Clouded Leopard
Neofelis nebulosa
K. Varma
Description
The clouded leopard was previously considered a single species but has recently been divided into two based on molecular (mitochondrial DNA, microsatellites and chromosomal) and morphological (pelage and craniodental) analyses. The mainland clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) occurs in South-east Asia on the mainland, the Sunda clouded leopard (Neofelis diardi) only inhabits the islands Sumatra and Borneo. Before this division into two species, there were four subspecies of N. nebulosa described: Neofelis nebulosa diardi inhabiting Borneo, Sumatra and the Batu Islands (now N. diardi), N. n. macrosceloides occurring in Bhutan, Burma, India and Nepal, N. n. nebulosa recorded in Cambodia, China, Laos, Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam, and N. n. brachyura endemic to the island of Taiwan. The data currently available does not support the distinction of any subspecies of the Mainland clouded leopard and it is therefore considered as a monotypic species.
The clouded leopard is of intermediate size (comparable to a small leopard) with a tail nearly as long as the head and body, and relatively short legs. Males are larger than females. The clouded leopard has some very special characteristics: Its legs are short, stout and end in broad paws. The hind legs are much longer than the front ones and its tail is exceptionally long (typically equivalent to head-body length), plush and enables it to skilfully balance on thin tree branches. Its skull is quite long, and, together with its sister species the Sunda clouded leopard, its canine teeth are disproportionally longer than those of any other extant cat. Also, the patterns of its coat with cloud-like rosettes, dark outlines and lighter centres on a light background are unique and give the clouded leopard its name. The background colour of the coat can vary from yellowish brown, ochre, tawny, silvery or dark grey to earthy brown. Two long stripes run along the spine and the tail has 6 bands. The underside is white or pale tawny, its limbs and underbelly are marked with large black ovals and the back of its neck is conspicuously marked with two thick black bars.
The clouded leopard has body and behavioural characteristics which fall between the ones of the small and the large cat species. For example, it cannot roar and can only purr like small cat species but its feeding behaviour, grooming and its body postures are similar to those of large cat species.
Weight
16-23 kg
Body Length
69- 108 cm
Tail Length
61-91 cm
Longevity
15-17 years
Litter Size
1-2 cubs
B. Cranke
Status and Distribution
The clouded leopard is considered Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List. In the National Red List of Nepal, it is considered Endangered. There is little scientific information available on the clouded leopard in the wild. In some parts of its wide range, it may be common but very little is known about its population trends, since it inhabits typically very dense vegetation and is very elusive. Its habitat is generally fragmented. The estimated global population size is between 1,600–29,000 mature adults, although it is likely more towards the lower end of this estimate and between 3,700 and 5,580 mature individuals.
Clouded leopards are distributed from the eastern and southern Himalayan foothills in Nepal, through Bhutan and India to Myanmar, southern China, Peninsular Malaysia and throughout Indochina (Vietnam, Lao PDR, Thailand, Cambodia) and Peninsular Malaysia. High declines have been detected in China, Myanmar and Vietnam. Its current status in China is poorly known. It had a wide distribution south of the Yangtze but there are very few recent records. It has also been reported as relatively common in the Chinese province Jiangxi and Anhui in the past. It has been recorded in central, western and southern Sichuan and in the Namcha Barwa region in Tibet. A rough population estimate for south-west China based on home range size estimations from Thailand, and on camera trapping, scat collection and sightings between 2005 and 2007 resulted in an estimate of 70 individuals in southern Yunnan.
The presence of the clouded leopard in Bangladesh is uncertain. It may still occur marginally in the country in mixed evergreen forests, but little of this forested habitat remains. The previously described subspecies of the clouded leopard occurring on the island of Taiwan, is thought to be extinct, with the last direct record of occurrence dating from 1983, and the last record of a skin from 1989. Similarly, the species may be close to extinct in Vietnam. Here, they have not detected the species on camera trap studies since 2013. In India, it has been reported from the states Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura and northern parts of West Bengal. The clouded leopard occurred once throughout the countries in Indochina and Peninsular Malaysia but nowadays its range is largely restricted to forested and protected areas. It is found in approximately 36% of its historic range.
In Bhutan, mainland clouded leopards mostly occur in the forested southern areas rather than the northern areas due to the rapid increase in latitudinal elevation. Here, they occur both inside and outside protected areas. In Nepal, mainland clouded leopards occur relatively extensively in eastern Nepal between Terai (in the south) and the Nepal-Tibet (China) border (in the north), and occur up to the Annapurna Conservation Area in the west. In India, mainland clouded leopards widely occur in the northeast and as far west as Valmiki Tiger Reserve, they occur in relatively high densities as high as 4.7 and 5.1 individuals per 100 km2 in Manas National Park and Dampa Tiger Reserve respectively. In Bangladesh, the species likely persists in suitable mountainous habitat in the south-eastern part of the country albeit in very small numbers. Despite the majority of Myanmar being deemed suitable habitat for the clouded leopard, the species is probably thinly but widely distributed across the evergreen forests in northern and southern Myanmar. The species has not been detected in seemingly suitable areas and only occurs in low numbers. In Lao PDR, clouded leopards have become very rare and likely have been extirpated from many forested areas. There have been no recent records from southern Lao PDR, if they do occur in this area, they likely are there in extremely low numbers. In China, there have been few recent records and the species’ current distribution largely seems restricted to areas in Yunan Province along the Lao PDR and Myanmar border, although not much is known about it. In Thailand, on the other hand, mainland clouded leopards seem to be widely distributed across the highly fragmented forests. There, however, is a lack of recent records in the relatively unexplored forests in the northern, northeastern and southern part of the country. In Cambodia, the species still occurs in protected areas in the Cardamom Rainforest Landscape and Virachey National Park. In other parts of Cambodia, however, they have become extremely rare and may even have been extirpated. In Viet Nam, there are no recent records and the species might have been extirpated. In Malaysia, the species is still relatively widespread and mostly occur within the Central Forest Spine map.
The difference in the estimated densities (0.6 and 3.1 / 100 km²) from two different parts of Htamanthi Wildlife Sanctuary, Myanmar, is thought to be due to the presence or absence of tigers in the respective areas.
Habitat
The clouded leopard mainly occupies the deepest parts of evergreen forests and is most strongly associated with primary tropical rainforest. However, the clouded leopard also inhabits other habitat types, such as secondary and logged forests as well as coniferous forests, coastal hardwood forests, grassland and scrub. In Myanmar and Thailand, it has been reported from relatively open and dry tropical forest. Studies in Thailand showed a preference for forest over more open habitats.
The clouded leopard has been recorded up to 1,450 m in the Himalayan foothills, up to 2,174 m in the Annapurna Conservation Area, up to 3,000 m in Taiwan and up to an elevation of 3,600 m in Bhutan. Recently, it was even detected at an altitude of 4,500 m.
P. Meier
Ecology and Behaviour
The clouded leopard is solitary and mostly cathemeral (i.e. can be active at any time of day and night), but mostly with slightly higher amounts of activity at night or crepuscule. It is a remarkably secretive creature. The clouded leopard is a highly arboreal species which moves easily through trees. It is an excellent climber, one of the few cats which can also climb headfirst down a vertical trunk and hang from branches by their hind feet. The clouded leopard uses trees to rest, but it likely also forages in them. Although the clouded leopard is such a good climber, it also can travel over quite long distances on the ground. In Thailand, male and female clouded leopards seem to have similar home range sizes between 30-40 km² with intensively used core areas of 3-5 km². Home ranges of females and males overlap substantially and also home ranges of males seem to have quite high overlap. It marks its territory with scent. The species may occur in higher densities when other larger cats, i.e. tigers and leopards, occur in lower densities.
The age at first reproduction is around 26 months for females and for males. Oestrus lasts for approximately 6 days, the oestrus cycle for 30 days and gestation for 87-99 days. Age at the last reproduction is 12 to 15 years. Data originates from studies on captive animals preceding the relatively recent split of N. nebulosa and N. diardi and cannot be distinguished between the two species.
P. Meier
Prey
The clouded leopard preys on diurnal and nocturnal prey. It feeds on arboreal and terrestrial vertebrates such as small deer, monkeys, squirrel, porcupines, pangolin, wild boar and birds. Occasionally, they hunt domestic poultry and goats but are apparently not interested in carrion. In other studies, the clouded leopard mainly took primates (pig-tailed macaques, gibbons) and also preyed on muntjacs and argus pheasants. There is even a confirmed case of predation on a binturong. In the Phu Khieu National Park in Thailand, it preys on hog deer, slow loris, bush-tailed porcupine, Malayan pangolin, Indochinese ground squirrel and some other species.
Main Threats
The main threats to the clouded leopard include habitat loss and fragmentation through deforestation and land conversion into agricultural areas. A range-wide decline in habitat strongholds of the mainland clouded leopard of 34% between 2000 and 2018 has been estimated. Its habitat in South-east Asia is undergoing the fastest deforestation rate mainly due to the expansion of oil palm plantations. The degradation of habitat and loss of connectivity is likely to become an issue particularly in Myanmar as a result of infrastructure development and an increase in hydropower projects and rural roads is likely to become an issue in Nepal.
In some areas, the prey of the clouded leopard is seriously overhunted for local meat markets, and the majority of prey species is listed as threatened in the IUCN Red List. This depletion of the wild prey, however, should be researched further and is most likely a threat in Indochina and China. The biggest driver of population decline however is mortality due to illegal hunting. The clouded leopard is threatened through targeted illegal hunting for its decorative fur, and its teeth and bones for the traditional medicine market, and indiscriminate hunting snares. The increase in snaring across Cambodia and Lao PDR likely has been the biggest driver of population declines. The species is also hunted for the illegal wildlife trade. Large numbers of clouded leopard skins have been observed in the illegal wildlife trade in South-east Asia. Pelts have been reported on sale in urban markets from Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, Nepal and Thailand including from the Tachilek market along the Thailand-Myanmar border and from the Mong La along the Myanmar-China border. While there have been fewer records of clouded leopard items since 2010, this might simply be indicative of the trade becoming more difficult to detect and population declines and extinctions. Its meat is also used for exotic dishes. There also seems to be some illegal trade of captive live animals for the exotic pet market. Additionally, Nepal's National Red List features livestock depredation and retaliatory killing as a tertiary threat.
P. Meier
Conservation Effort and Protection Status
The clouded leopard is included in CITES Appendix I and protected by national legislation across most of its range. Hunting is prohibited in Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam. Hunting is regulated in Laos, but it has no legal protection outside protected areas in Bhutan. It occurs in many protected areas.
Proper measures are required to minimise threats such as designing and implementing regional management plans and strategies. Habitat destruction must be mitigated as much as possible and law enforcement and protection against illegal hunting must be improved for successful conservation of the clouded leopard. Raising awareness needs to be increased as well. In China, some environmental education of local school children and adults has taken place in order to improve public awareness of the species.
There is a need for more investigation and studies of the ecology, distribution and status of the clouded leopard. The increased use of camera traps has led to a better understanding of its distribution and recent research has improved the knowledge about its population status. However, there is still basic ecological information missing, the amount of information on its distribution and status is still not sufficient. More research is needed to enable taking appropriate conservation measures. Since the species occurs in many protected areas, improving the effectiveness of the management of these areas through the implementation of the Zero-poaching tool kit (http://zeropoaching.org/) and achieving Conservation Assured Tiger Standards (CA|TS), should significantly reduce the threats faced by the mainland clouded leopards within these protected areas. As the species occurs in transboundary landscapes, it should be considered in transboundary conservation planning.
There is a need for more investigation and studies of the ecology, distribution and status of the clouded leopard. The increased use of camera traps has led to a better understanding of its distribution and recent research has improved the knowledge about its population status. However, there is still basic ecological information missing, the amount of information on its distribution and status is still not satisfying and more research is needed to enable taking appropriate conservation measures.
