IUCN / SSC Cat Specialist Group - Digital Cat Library |
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| Linnell, J.D.C.; Smith, M.E.; Odden, J.; Kaczensky, P.; Swenson, J.E. | |
| Strategies for the reduction of carnivore-livestock conflicts: a review | |
| 1996 Full Book | |
This report aims to review individual methods by which the depredation of livestock by carnivores can be reduced, and ways in which these methods can be incorporated into management strategies. An underlying assumption is that joint goals exist of maintaining viable carnivore populations, and livestock production. Data were collected on several related topics including; (1) Carnivore behaviour and ecology, (2) Animal husbandry, (3) Depredation studies, (4) Traditional herding practices, (5) Case studies. A world-wide perspective was taken where possible, although the main emphasis is for Europe, and Scandinavia in particular. Data were gathered tram published an unpublished studies and personal communications. A clear effort was made to identity the biological mechanism behind a depredation reduction methods success or failure. Population control of predators has been the most historically favoured method of reducing carnivore depredation on livestock. With abundant species like coyote and dingoes, population reduction through lethal control is still widely used and generally reduces depredation and does not conflict with conservation interests. With large and endangered species widespread population reduction is generally incompatible with carnivore conservation. However, in many cases such species will need to be prevented tram colonising areas with unsuitable habitat and very high conflict potential. In general population reduction will only a realistic method if it can be combined with land-use zoning (see later). Although much attention has been directed at removing so-ca lied "problem individuals", there is little data to indicate if problem individuals really exist, or if it is a problem sex and age class causing most depredation (males are generally responsible for depredation than females). Much work is needed to determine if these animals exist, and if so, to find ways to identify and selectively remove them. Live-capture and translocation is not considered to be a generally usable method of controlling individual carnivores because of their demonstrated homing ability and their wide post-release movements. Only if large and unsaturated areas exist where the individuals can be released, will there be any measure of success. In general, only when returning breeding age females to very small populations or using an animal for a re-introduction project will the cost of translocation we justified. Many husbandry methods have been used to reduce depredation since livestock were first domesticated 10 000 years ago. Erecting predator-proof fences has been a successful measure used, although large costs and secondary effects on other wildlife imply that is generally only useful to protect small areas, such as bee hives, lambing pastures or night-time enclosures (exceptions exist in Australia and Africa where very large areas are fenced). High-voltage electric fencing has been shown to be most effective. Visual and acoustic repellents, aversive conditioning and the use of other artificial repellents and deterrents have very short-term benefits at best. Increasing natural prey is a prerequisite for reducing depredation and maintaining carnivore populations, but it may also allow carnivore populations to increase so it can not be used independently of other improvements in husbandry. Diversionary feeding of bears may have limited application in same special circumstances, but the problems of having food conditioned bears concentrated around feeding sites can cause a hast of other problems, including increased aggression towards humans. Livestock guarding dogs are very effective at reducing depredation when they have a flock or a defined pasture to protect. Removing carrion and carcasses tram the pasture may help reduce the number of carnivores attracted to the area. Sheep and goals are much more vulnerable to depredation than cattle. Changing tram sheep herding to cattle herding will definitely help reduce depredation, especially when cows with young calves are afforded extra protection. Ensuring that calving and lambing occur under controlled and protected conditions will greatly reduce depredation as it neonates are always vulnerable to more predators than adults. Adjusting birth season so that neonates are larger when released onto open pasture may provide some benefits. Avoiding specific areas and seasons associated with peaks of depredation has the potential to greatly reduce depredation. Paying of compensation does not contribute to a reduction in depredation, it only makes the level of loss more acceptable. In general, it is the traditional methods of caring for livestock which show the greatest promise. The combination of shepherd, guarding dogs and night-time enclosure shows the best promise. The following list provides a summary of the herding systems that show the most promise. In effect these are a return to patterns of husbandry which have been used throughout the Eurasia for millennia. A zoning system implies that sources of conflict are removed from large areas were carnivore populations are conserved, while carnivores are excluded from other areas of unsuitable habitat or very high conflict potential. Many forms of agriculture, forestry, hunting, fishing and industry are compatible with the conservation of carnivores. Free-ranging sheep are the main source of conflict. This means that wilderness is not a prerequisite for effective conservation. Zoning has a sound biological basis in the fidelity to home ranges that most carnivore show. However, the low densities that northern temperate carnivores live at (usually 0.5 -2.0 individuals per 100 km2 and their large home range sizes (100 -1000 km2) implies that conservation zones need to be large. Dispersal of juveniles, and occasional extra-territorial movements of adults will cause conflict around the edges of a conservation zone, requiring the use of a large butter zone. No single measure will reduce depredation on livestock. Zoning of land-use is vital at same level to prevent conflicts between expanding carnivore populations in same areas, and to limit the area in which husbandry measures to reduce depredation need to be applied. A successful strategy for reducing depredation will provide (1) a large area of suitable habitat as a conservation zone from which conflict potential is removed (i.e. greatly improved husbandry or changing to other forms of agriculture), and within which lethal control is not applied. (2) a butter zone within which improved husbandry is encouraged and lethal control may be practised to prevent, or reduce the colonisation of the area by disperses. (3) the outside area from which large carnivores will be more or less excluded through lethal control. It is vital that agricultural and environmental management agencies co-operate and co-ordinate their plans so that their joint goals are compatible. Clearly stated goals with a sound scientific basis are a prerequisite for any strategy to work. The importance for constant education and information cannot be overstressed. |
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