Taylor CR, Rowntree VJ. 1973. Temperature regulation and heat balance in running cheetahs: a strategy for sprinters? American Journal of Physiology 224(1):848-51.

Cheetahs sprint at speeds exceeding 100 km/h. At this speed their calculated heat production would be more than 60 times greater than that at rest. The cheetah stores most of the heat produced while running: 70% of the heat produced during a 15-min run at 11 km/h was stored; this increased to 90% at 18 km/h. The cheetah refused to run when rectal temperature reached 40.5 °C, Thus, the distance at which a cheetah pursues its prey appears to be limited by the rise in the body temperature. The resting cheetah possesses substantial capability for dissipating heat evaporatively and can maintain a constant body temperature of about 40 °C when air temperature is 50 °C. During running these evaporative heat-loss mechanisms are not activated. By comparison, the goat, a non-sprinter, increased evaporation and stored much less heat while running than the cheetah.

Taylor_&_Rowntree_1973_Temperature_regulation_in_cheetahs.pdf

Taylor CR, Shkolnik A, Dmi'el R, Baharav D, Borut A. 1974. Running in cheetahs, gazelles, and goats: energy cost and limb configuration. American Journal of Physiology 227(4):848-50.

Functional anatomists have argued that an animal can be built to run cheaply by lightening the distal parts of the limbs and/or by concentrating the muscle mass of the limbs around their pivot points. These arguments assume that much of the energy expended as animals run at a constant speed goes into alternately accelerating and decelerating the limbs. Gazelles, goats, and cheetahs offer a nice gradation of limb configurations in animals of similar total mass and limb length and, therefore, provide the opportunity to quantify the effect of limb design on the energy cost of running. We found that, despite large differences in limb configuration, the energetic cost was nearly identical over a wide range of speeds. Also, the observed energetic cost of running was almost the same as that predicted on the basis of body weight for all three species cheetahs, 0.14 ml O₂ (gkm)^-1 observed vs. 0.13 ml O₂ (gkm)^-1 predicted; gazelle, 0.16 ml O₂ (gkm)^-1 observed vs. 0.15 ml O₂ (gkm)^-1 predicted; and goat, 0.18 ml O₂ (gkm)^-1 observed vs. 0.14 ml O₂ (gkm)^-1 predicted. Thus the relationship between body weight and energetic cost of running apparently applies to animals with very different limb configurations and is more general than anticipated. This suggests that most of the energy expended in running at a constant speed is not used to accelerate and decelerate the limbs.

Taylor_et_al_1974_Running_in_cheetahs_gazelles_and_goats.pdf

Taylor F. 1990. Endangered species benefit from research. News & Features:5-8.

In 1981, O'Brien joined a team of scientists at the National Zoological Park working to unravel the problem of poor breeding and endangered survival of captive cheetahs. Using molecular techniques on blood and skin sample he found that the cheetah has a profound lack of genetic diversity, particularly at the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), that can cause problems for disease resistance. O'Brien and his colleagues theorized that the cheetah had gone through a severe population bottleneck, where the number of cheetahs had dropped to just a few individuals, and close relatives were forced to breed.

Taylor_1990_Endangered_species_benefit_from_research.pdf

Teer JG.  A plan for cheetah conservation in Namibia. Report, 39 p.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service requests specific information on several conditions and operations which affect the protection and utilization of endangered and threatened life when requests are made for changes in a species' status. The proposed conservation plan was cooperatively developed with Safari Club International, the Ministry of Environment and Tourism of Namibia, and the Namibia Professional Hunters Association (NAPHA). Cheetah numbers were estimated in the late 1980s to be 2500. Various factors influencing the cheetahs' future in Namibia are discussed.

Teer_ A_Plan_for_Cheetah_Conservation_in_Namibia.pdf

Tennant MB, Craig SJ. 1977. Breeding cheetahs at the Lion Country Safari Parks: a summary. Int Zoo Yb 17(167):169.

A six-year study aimed at determining the conditions under which the cheetah is most likely to reproduce. Comprehensive behavioural notes were taken and still and cine cameras and tape recorders were used in the collection of data. This paper summarizes the conditions and events leading to births and attempts to evaluate the factors involved. Main factors that have contributed to the success of the cheetah breeding programme include a quality commercially prepared diet, a large compound with wide field of vision and which excludes sensory awareness of other large carnivores, females of at least three years of age, predetermined sexual activity levels for males and the fighting, females was apparently courted and impregnated by one male alone.

Tennant_&_Craig_1977_Breeding_Cheetahs_at_the_Lion_Country_Safari_Parks.pdf

Terio KA, Marker L, Overstrom EW, Brown JL. 2003. Analysis of ovarian and adrenal activity in Namibian cheetahs. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 33(2):71-8.

Captive breeding of cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) has had limited success because a high percentage of captive females exhibit a lack of ovarian activity. This study examined concentrations of ovarian and adrenal hormones in wild-caught cheetahs (n=3) housed in large outdoor enclosures on private game ranches in Namibia. Cheetahs were monitored for a 16-month period to investigate the effect of season on ovarian and adrenal function. Secretory profiles of oestradiol, progestagen, and cortisol metabolites were quantified non-invasively using faecal steroid analysis. All three cheetahs exhibited ovarian activity; however, none cycled continuously. Periods of anoestrus occurred during overlapping periods between August and December 1994, but not during the same time period in 1995. Mean duration of the oestrous cycle, oestrus period and baseline concentrations of reproductive hormones were consistent with those observed in other captive cheetah populations. Concentrations of faecal corticoids were lower than those from captive cheetahs in North America. There was no correlation between adrenal activity and ovarian function. Spontaneous ovulation was documented in one cheetah. These findings support those of earlier studies that even under natural and, therefore, presumably ideal environmental conditions, reproductive activity in captive cheetahs is not continuous.

Terio_et_al_2003_Analysis_of_ovarian_and_adrenal_activity_in_Namibian_cheetahs.pdf

Terio KA, Marker L, Munson L. 2004. Evidence for chronic stress in captive but not free-ranging cheethas (Acinonyx jubatus) based on adrenal morphology and function. J Wildl Dis 40(2):259-66.

The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is highly endangered because of loss of habitat in the wild and failure to thrive in captivity. Cheetahs in zoos reproduce poorly and have high prevalences of unusual diseases that cause morbidity and mortality. These diseases are rarely observed in free-ranging cheetahs but have been documented in cheetahs that have been captured and held in captive settings either temporarily or permanently. Because captivity may be stressful for this species and stress is suspected as contributing to poor health and reproduction, this study aimed to measure chronic stress by comparing baseline concentrations of fecal corticoid metabolites and adrenal gland morphology between captive and free-ranging cheetahs. Additionally, concentrations of estradiol and testosterone metabolites were quantified to determine whether concentrations of gonadal steroids correlated with corticoid concentration and to assure that corticosteroids in the free-ranging samples were not altered by environmental conditions. Concentrations of fecal corticoids, estradiol, and testosterone were quantified by radioimmunoassay in 20 free-ranging and 20 captive cheetahs from samples collected between 1994 and 1999. Concentrations of baseline fecal corticoids were significantly higher (p=0.005) in captive cheetahs (196.08±36.20 ng/g dry feces) than free-ranging cheetahs (71.40±14.35 ng/g dry feces). Testosterone concentrations were lower in captive male cheetahs (9.09±2.84 ng/g dry feces) than in free-ranging cheetahs (34.52±12.11 ng/g dry feces), which suggests suppression by elevated corticoids in the captive males. Evidence for similar suppression of estradiol concentrations in females was not present. Adrenal corticomedullary ratios were determined on midsagittal sections of adrenal glands from 13 free-ranging and 13 captive cheetahs obtained between 1991 and 2002. The degree of vacuolation of cortical cells in the zona fasciulata was graded for each animal. Corticomedullary ratios were larger (p=0.05) in captive cheetahs; however, there was no difference (p=0.31) in the degree of corticocyte vacuolation between the two populations. These data provide both morphologic and functional evidence suggestive of chronic stress in captive cheetahs. Further research into the role of hypercortisolemia in the pathogenesis of the reproductive abnormalities and unusual diseases of captive cheetahs is needed.

Terio_et_al_2004_Chronic_stress_in_captive_cheetahs.pdf

Terio KA, Munson L, Marker L, Aldridge BM, Solnick JV. 2005. Comparison of Helicobacter spp. In Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) with and without gastritis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 43(1):229-34.

Chronic gastritis causes significant morbidity and mortality in captive cheetahs but is rare in wild cheetahs despite colonization by abundant spiral bacteria. This research aimed to identify the Helicobacter species that were associated with gastritis in captive cheetahs but are apparently commensal in wild cheetahs. Helicobacter species were characterized by PCR amplification and sequencing of the 16s rRNA, urease, and cagA genes and by transmission electron microscopy of frozen or formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded gastric samples from 33 cheetahs infected with Helicobacter organisms (10 wild without gastritis and 23 captive with gastritis). Samples were screened for mixed infections by denaturant gel gradient electrophoresis of the 16s rRNA gene and by transmission electron microscopy. There was no association between Helicobacter infection and the presence or severity of gastritis. Eight cheetahs had 16s rRNA sequences that were most similar (98 to 99%) to H. pylori. Twenty-five cheetahs had sequences that were most similar (97 to 99%) to "H. heilmannii" or H. felis. No cheetahs had mixed infections. The ultrastructural morphology of all bacteria was most consistent with "H. heilmannii," even when 16s rRNA sequences were H. pylori-like. The urease gene from H. pylori-like bacteria could not be amplified with primers for either "H. heilmannii" or H. pylori urease, suggesting that this bacteria is neither H. pylori nor "H. heilmannii." The cagA gene was not identified in any case. These findings question a direct role for Helicobacter infection in the pathogenesis of gastritis and support the premise that host factors account for the differences in disease between captive and wild cheetah populations.

Terio_et_al_2005_Helicobacter_in_cheetahs_with_and_without_gastritis.pdf

Thalwitzer_et_al_2010_Seroprevalence_to_viral_pathogens_in_cheetahs_from_Namibia.pdf

Thomas P, Balme G, Hunter L, McCabe-Parodi J. 2005. Using scent attractants to non-invasively collect hair samples from cheetahs, leopards and lions. Animal Keepr's Forum 7/8:342-84.

The goal of this project was to document the responses of free-ranging cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and other large African felids to novel scents in an attempt to refine methods for surveying felid populations. Specifically, the purpose of the study was:
1) To ascertain whether African felids are attracted to novel scents. While captive cats are drawn to a wide variety of fragrances, we wanted to assess the response of free-ranging felids to novel scents where they might i) explore scents because they are unfamiliar and interesting, or ii) avoid scents because they might be associated with human activity.
2) Assess whether these scents would elicit rubbing responses that could be used to facilitate the collection of hair samples from African felids. If successful, this technique could be used as an effective tool to non-invasively collect hair samples for genetic analyses.

Thomas_et_al_2005_Scent_attractants_to_collect_hair_samples_from_cats.pdf

Thompson RA, Vestal BM. 1974. Survey of conditions associated with breeding cheetah in captivity. Report

On the basis of a questionnaire-survey returned by twenty zoological institutions, the following factors appear to be significant in successful breeding of captive cheetahs:
1) No African carnivores housed in the proximity of the cheetahs.
2) A relatively large enclosure size-on the order of 1000 m2 or larger
3) In most instances, the first successful breeding occurred when the cheetahs had been in the collection a short time. Therefore, breeding attempts should be initiated as soon as possible after acquisition of the animals.
4) Isolation and reintroduction is not productive.
5) There appears to be a July-August, December-January pattern of seasonality of estrus, hence reintroductions in those time periods may be more productive.
6) Facilities should be available to isolate a pregnant female or female and young.

Thompson_&_Vestal_1974_Survey_of_Conditions_Associated_with_Breeding_Cheetah.pdf

Thompson SE. 1990. Bringing up baby. Zoo Life:57-63.

Breeding in captivity is very difficult with cheetahs. Female cheetahs are very choosy. They won't take just any male. Scientists discovered a connection between infertility in female cheetahs and the exotic feline diet fed to many captive cats. Cheetahs are more susceptible to disease than other cats - this may be one result of an ancient genetic bottleneck. When the king cheetah was first reported in 1926, it was believed to be a cheetah-leopard hybrid. It is distinguished by its blotchy sports and dark broad stripes down its back.

Thompson_1990_Bringing_Up_Baby.pdf

Accurate assessment of carnivore population status is frequently hindered by insufficient distribution data. For northern South Africa we address this deficit by mapping new records from landscape-scale sign surveys, questionnaire interviews, problem animal records and camera trapping. The black-backed jackal Canis mesomelas and caracal Caracal caracal remain common and widespread. Ranges of the serval Leptailurus serval and brown hyaena Hyaena brunnea were much larger than previous estimates, reducing the risk of simultaneous extirpation across all occupied locations. The proportion of range area occupied was larger for several species, notably the leopard Panthera pardus, cheetah Acinonyx jubatus and serval. We conclude that the serval continues to recover from historical threats and is expanding into new areas. A larger brown hyaena range and less fragmented pattern of occurrence probably confers greater resilience to threats than was suggested by previous data. Reduced extinction risk arising from the increased area occupied by the cheetah and leopard is tempered by probable local range contraction. Our maps provide baseline information for monitoring the distribution of these six species, which is essential in managing ecological issues that have a spatial component such as responses to changing land use. Our results also demonstrate the utility of detection/nondetection surveys in rapid assessment of carnivore populations at large spatial scales.

Thorn_et_al_2011_Distribution_patterns_of_carnivores_in_northern_South_Africa.pdf

Tjaronda W. 2006. New beef label to support cheetah. New Era;11,1-2.

Namibian farmers will export beef under a new label in support of the conservation of the endangered animal. Farmers who export the beef will be certified Cheetah Country Farmers and will be monitored as practising cheetah-friendly livestock management. They will be paid a premium for the best beef they sell. Cheetah Country Beef is but one of the many conservation economic initiatives that CCF has embarked on to save the life of the Cheetah in Namibia.

Tjaronda_2006_New_Beef_Label_to_Support_Cheetah.pdf

Tong JR. 1974. Breeding cheetahs at the Beekse Bergen Safari Park. Int Zoo Yb 14:129-30.

Several interesting point about a successful breeding. The cheetahs had lived together as a group for three years and were never seperated from each other. Before the period during which mating took place, no female had been observed in oestrus, so it may be assumed that the animals were ready for breeding at approximately 3.5-4 years. The most important factor appears to be the new external interest created for the cheetahs shortly before mating. There were sections containing lions which were replaced by African ungulates.

Tong_1974_Breeding_Cheetahs_at_the_Beekse_Bergen_Safari_Park.pdf

Troyer JL, Pecon-Slattery J, Roelke ME, Johnson W, VandeWoude S, Vazguez-Salat N, Brown M, Frank L, Woodroffe R, Winterbach C, Winterbach H, Hemson G, Bush M, Alexander KA, Revilla E, O'Brien SJ. 2005. Seroprevalence and genomic divirgence of circulating strains of feline immunodeficiency virus among Felidae and Hyaenidae species. Journal of Virology 79:8282-94.

Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infects umerous wild and domestic feline species and is closely related to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV). Species-specific strains of FIV have been described for domestic cat (Felis catus), puma (Puma concolor), lion (Panthera leo), leopard (Panthera pardus), and Pallas' cat (Otocolobus manul). Here, we employ a three-antigen Western blot screening (domestic cat, puma, and lion FIV antigens) and PCR analysis to survey worldwide prevalence, distribution, and genomic differentiation of FIV based on 3,055 specimens from 35 Felidae and 3 Hyaenidae species. Although FIV infects a wide variety of host species, it is confirmed to be endemic in free-ranging populations of nine Felidae and one Hyaenidae species. These include the large African carnivores (lion, leopard, cheetah, and spotted hyena), where FIV is widely distributed in multiple populations; most of the South American felids (puma, jaguar, ocelot, margay, Geoffroy's cat, and tigrina), which maintain a lower FIV-positive level throughout their range; and two Asian species, the Pallas' cat, which has a species-specific strain of FIV, and the leopard cat, which has a domestic cat FIV strain in one population. Phylogenetic analysis of FIV proviral sequence demonstrates that most species for which FIV is endemic harbor monophyletic, genetically distinct species-specific FIV strains, suggesting that FIV transfer between cat species has occurred in the past but is quite infrequent today.

Troyer_et_al_2005_Strains_of_FIV_among_Felidae_and Hyaenidae.pdf

Truyen U, Parrish CR, Harder TC, Kaaden O-R. 1995. There is nothing permanent except change. The emergence of new virus diseases. Veterinary Microbiology 43:103-22.

The sudden appearance of apparently new viruses with pathogenic potential is of fundamental importance in medical microbiology and a constant threat to humans and animals. The emergence of a "new" pathogen is not an isolated event, as for instance the frequent appearance of new influenza virus strains demonstrates. Often the new virus strains co-circulate with the older strains in a susceptible population, but a replacement of the older strains has been also observed. In rare instances the new viruses can cause dramatic epidemies or pandemics, such as those observed with the human immunodeficiency virus, canine parvovirus, or most recently, with the agent of bovine spongiform encephalogathy in the United Kingdom. The mechanisms of the emergence are not always clearly understood, but an altered host range appears to be a common event. Whether a true change in host range occurs, or whether the virus adapted to the host and replicated more efficiently, is often unknown. This review tries to summarize the facts that are known about a wide variety of "new" viruses of mammals, such as the simian, human and feline lentiviruses, the feline coronaviruses, the feline parvoviruses, the carnivore morbilliviruses, the influenza A viruses, and the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. A particular emphasis will be put on the genetic mechanisms that might have taken place and that might have been responsible for their sudden appearance.

Truyen_et_al_1995_Emerge_of_new_virus_diseases.pdf

Turnbull P. 2005. Anthrax vaccination evaluation study in cheetah. Animal Keeper's Forum 32(7/8):329.

It has been recognized for decades that anthrax (that disease now so notorious for its biological warfare and bioterrorism associations) is a common natural seasonal disease among the herbivorous species of the Etosha National Park, occasionally affecting livestock and wildlife in other parts of Namibia. Of particular concern all along has been the additional threat is poses to the already endangered black rhino in Etosha, but it was only very recently realized that cheetah were dying in substantial numbers there from this disease.

Turnbull_2005_Anthrax_vaccination_evaluation_study_in_cheetah.pdf

Tyler JW, Cullor JS. 1989. Titers, tests, and truisms: rational interpretation of diagnostic serologic testing. JAVMA 194(11):1550-8.

The recent availability of serologic tests has changed the practice of veterinary medicine. These assays not only assist with the diagnosis and treatment of recognized syndromes, but they permit identification of new, poorly defined disease entities. Assays kits are available for FeLV, dirofilariasis, rheumatoid arthritis, enterotoxigenic colibacillosis, and failure of passive transfere. The purpose of this report is to discuss the theory behind diagnostic serologic testing, rebut selected misconceptions, and suggest strategies for interpreting the results of diagnostic serologic tests. Also, the authors have provided adaptations of standard statistical methods, sample calculations, general references, and a glossary of terms.

Tyler_&_Cullor_1989_Rational_interpretation_of_diagnostic_serologic_testing.pdf