Labuschagne W. 1981. Aspects of cheetah ecology in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park. Conference proceedings.

The Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, an area of almost 960'000 hectares, is situated in the north-western corner of the Cape Province. Twenty cheetah groups, comprising 43 individuals, were kept under observations for 115 days. They were followed for more than 1200 kilometres while information on their predator-prey relationship, territoriality and related ecology factors, was collected. It was found that not only did the sizes of prey species differ in relation to the cheetah's group sizes but so did the kill rates and the frequencies at which each group size would kill. During an experiment which lasted 25 days, 11 cheetahs consumed 51.9 per cent of carcasses offered, averaging a daily consumption of 3.8 kilograms per cheetah. On average, cheetahs travelled 12.3 kilometres every 24 hours, drank water once every 82 kilometres, urinated every 4.3 km and defecated 12 every kilometres travelled. The demarcated boundaries by urinating have been found to exceed 300 square metres in Gemsbok Park.

Labuschagnet_1981_Cheetah_ecology_in_the_Kalahari.pdf

Lagendijk DDG, Gusset M. 2008. Human–Carnivore Coexistence on Communal Land Bordering the Greater Kruger Area, South Africa. Environm. Manage. 42, 971-976.

The aim of this study was to assess the potential for coexistence between rural people (living adjacent to a protected area) and predators (from the same area) ranging onto communal land. Ninety members of local communities bordering Manyeleti Game Reserve, which is contiguous with Kruger National Park, South Africa were interviewed. Respondents expressed diverging attitudes toward predators, which were more favorable among participants with higher education. Negative views were particularly due to fear of human and livestock losses, especially to lions, Panthera leo. Lions were thought to be the most abundant predator both within and outside the reserve. Lions were also the best known predator and were most often held responsible for killing livestock. Despite these livestock losses and a lack of conservation education, most participants voiced favorable opinions about large carnivore conservation, as predators were considered an integral part of the respondents' natural heritage. Thanks to this cultural tolerance and also because of a largely accepted management policy regarding predator control, large carnivores and people can coexist in the vicinity of Kruger National Park.

Lagendijk_&_Gusset_2008_Human-carnivore_coexistence_on_communal_land_in_South_Africa.pdf

Lamarque_et_al_2009_Human-wildlife_conflict_in_Africa.pdf

Langley RJ, Hirsch VM, O'Brien SJ, Adger-Johnson D, Goeken RM, Olmsted RA. 1994. Nucleotide sequence analysis of puma lentivirus (PLV-14): Genomic organization and relationship to other lentiviruses. Virology 202: 853-64.

The complete nucleotide sequence of an isolate of puma lentivirus (PLV-14) was obtained by an inverse polymerase chain reaction (I-PCR) technique and confirmed by conventional PCR. Both methods were used to amplify overlapping regions of proviral DNA, for cloning and sequencing, from genomic DNA isolated from PLV-14 infected Florida puma (Felis concolor coryi) peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). The provirus has a total length of 9100 nucleotides and the genomic organization of presumed protein coding regions are similar to those seen in other members of the lentivirus family, i.e., three large open reading frames gag, pol, and env as well as smaller intergenic regions that apparently encode regulatory proteins vif and 3' rev by positional and sequence similarity to those seen in other lentiviruses. Two additional open reading frames were identified in the env region and their function (if any) is unknown. The length of the PLV-14 long terminal repeat (LTR) was found to be shorter than the LTRs of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV). The sequence homology between PLV-14 and other lentiviruses demonstrates that PLV-14 is most closely related to FIV from domestic cats. However, the extent of sequence divergence of each retroviral gene segment is large (e.g., percentage sequence similarity between FIV and PLV-14 env is 8% amino acid and 37% nucleotide similarity), indicating relatively ancient divergence of these feline lentiviral genomes.The complete nucleotide sequence of an isolate of puma lentivirus (PLV-14) was obtained by an inverse polymerase chain reaction (I-PCR) technique and confirmed by conventional PCR. Both methods were used to amplify overlapping regions of proviral DNA, for cloning and sequencing, from genomic DNA isolated from PLV-14 infected Florida puma (Felis concolor coryi) peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). The provirus has a total length of 9100 nucleotides and the genomic organization of presumed protein coding regions are similar to those seen in other members of the lentivirus family, i.e., three large open reading frames gag, pol, and env as well as smaller intergenic regions that apparently encode regulatory proteins vif and 3' rev by positional and sequence similarity to those seen in other lentiviruses. Two additional open reading frames were identified in the env region and their function (if any) is unknown. The length of the PLV-14 long terminal repeat (LTR) was found to be shorter than the LTRs of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV). The sequence homology between PLV-14 and other lentiviruses demonstrates that PLV-14 is most closely related to FIV from domestic cats. However, the extent of sequence divergence of each retroviral gene segment is large (e.g., percentage sequence similarity between FIV and PLV-14 env is 8% amino acid and 37% nucleotide similarity), indicating relatively ancient divergence of these feline lentiviral genomes.

Langley_et_al_1994_Puma_lentivirus_sequence.pdf

Larkin R. 1986. Results of questionnaire re cheetah breeding in zoos Western Plains Zoo. Report.

A questionnaire re cheetah breeding in zoos was sent to 30 zoos. Here is the summary of the results of twelve replies out of thirty. The aim was to answer some specific questions at Western Plains Zoo and also to obtain up to the minute information on the design and success rate of other zoo's cheetah breeding programmes. The questionnaire is attached at the end of the paper.

Larkin_1986_Results_of_questionnaire_re_cheetah_breeding_in_zoos.pdf

Larkin R. 1987. Species management plan for Acinonyx jubatus. Report.

Species management plan for Acinonyx jubatus of the association of zoo directors of Australia and New Zealand. First part concerns the biology of the cheetah in the wild: general characteristics, distribution and habitat, diet, reproductive biology, behaviour, growth and development. Second part concerns the husbandry of captive cheetahs: housing, diets, management of breeding groups, diseases and medicine. Another part is about the history of captive population in different zoos. Several appendix show maps of distribution, age in captivity, plans of cheetah breeding areas, feed additives, a cheetah cub rearing protocol.

Larkin_1987_Species_management_plan_for_Acinonyx_jubatus.pdf

Larsen L. 2005. Volunteer opportunities available in Kenya. Animal Keeper's Forum 32(7/8):390-2.

The Cheetah Conservation Fund has recently expanded its efforts in Kenya. Under the direction of Mary Wykstra, the Kenya project uses CCF Namibia and other successful cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) programs as models to develop a conservation strategy, which supports the long-term survival of cheetahs in Kenya. Volunteers are a vital competent of CCF programs. Volunteers work alongside CCF staff, contributing their expertise and time. CCF has had a long history with zoological institutions and we are eager to develop volunteer opportunities with zoo professionals. Utilizing zookeepers' skills and abilities as well their passion for conservation, will be an important addition to our conservation.

Larsen_2005_Volunteer_opprtunities_in_Kenya.pdf

Laurenson K.  Cheetah cub mortality. Cats up close. Magazine article.

90 percent of all cubs born will die before reaching three months of age. Causes of mortality while the cubs are in the lair include predation, abandonment by the mother, grassfires, disease, exposure, and possibly infanticide by cheetah males. Predation imposes the heaviest toll, accounting for more than 50 percent of deaths. Cheetah populations seem to be limited primarily by the number of young that can be raised to maturity.
Like adult male coalitions, groups of adolescent littermates seem to prefer capturing large prey, such as adult and subadult gazelles, whereas adolescents that are on their own hunt small newborn gazelles and hares.

Laurenson_1993_Cheetah_cub_mortality_and_maternal_care.pdf

Laurenson MK. 1991. Cheetahs never win. BBC Wildlife:98-105.

The Serengeti National Park, 25000 km² of woods and grassland, count about 500 cheetahs. The high rate of juvenile mortality may be limiting the size of the cheetah populations, and it might only be possible for cheetahs to raise large litters where other predators exists at low densities or have been eliminated, such as in pastoralist areas or on livestock ranches. Overall, between birth and seven to eight weeks of age, when cubs are old enough to emerge from the lair, more than three out of four litters die, more than half of them as a result of predation, particularly by lions. Starvation due to abandonment also seems relatively common, and there are the change calamities such as fire and wet weather. It is often assumed that protected areas are a universal panacea for conserving cheetahs, but these studies show that if they are also a refuge for other predators, cheetahs still have a multitude of problems to overcome in order to survive.

Laurenson_1991_Cheetahs_never_win.pdf

Laurenson MK, Caro TM, Borner M. 1992. Female cheetah reproduction. National Geographic Research & Exploration 8(1):64-75.

To provide baseline information for the mounting effort to conserve cheetahs, female reproduction and offspring mortality were studied in a free-ranging population in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Most adult females were capable of reproduction; conceptions were more frequent in wet season months, possibly as a result of increased food availability in the form of newborn Thomson's gazelles. Cub mortality was extremely high, and cheetahs had only a 6% chance of reaching independence at 18 months of age. Predation by lions was the principal source of mortality, although some litters were abandoned by their mothers when nearby prey was scarce. Mothers produced new litters rapidly following the loss of an unweaned litter. These findings suggest that cheetahs may not be able to maintain high densities in the presence of other large carnivores, and that many of the problems zoological institutions experience in breeding cheetahs are specific to the captive context.

Laurenson_et_al_1992_Cheetah_reproduction.pdf

Laurenson MK. 1993. Early Maternal Behavior of Wild Cheetahs: Implications for Captive Husbandry. Zoo Biology 12(1):31-43.

Against a background of poor breeding success and cub survival in captive cheetahs, a knowledge of the early maternal behaviour in the wild may yield useful information for comparison with the captive situation. This paper documents the types of lair sites used by mothers to conceal their newborn cubs in the wild situation, and details patterns of maternal behaviour observed during this period. Four kinds of lairs were used by cheetah mothers, and the amount of protection from the elements and predators was assessed for each. Lair type appeared to have little effect on cub survival. Cubs were concealed in lairs for 8.2 weeks on average, although larger litters tended to leave lairs earlier. During this period, cubs were moved to new lairs approximately every 5.6 days. Cubs were left for an average of 9.6 hours while their mothers went hunting, but mothers virtually always returned to them around nightfall, even if they failed to catch any prey. Maternal neglect and cub abandonment, which account for many cub deaths in captivity, are abnormal in the wild, except when prey is very scarce. Improved husbandry techniques, such as the provision of multiple, secluded nest boxes, and remote monitoring conditions should promote breeding success in captivity. In addition, noise and human disturbance should be minimized.

Laurenson_1993_Maternal_behavior_in_Wild_Cheetahs.pdf

Laurenson MK, Caro TM. 1994. Monitoring the effects of non-trivial handling in free-living cheetahs. Animal Behaviour 47:547-57.

The long-term effects of wearing a radio collar, aerial radio-tracking and lair examination were assessed in cheetahs, a species potentially sensitive to disturbance and non-trivial handling. Females wearing collars weighing less than 2% of their body weight reproduced regularly, had equivalent food intake and hunting success and were in similar body condition to uncollared females. Collared and uncollared females failed to catch prey for the same reasons. Aerial radio-tracking that involved flying at tree height to pinpoint the locations of cheetahs did not appear to disturb habituated females or cause them to abandon their cubs. Entering lairs on foot to count and weigh cubs while the mother was absent did not appear to increase the likelihood of cub predation by other carnivores or abandonment by the mother. These results indicate that the behaviour and reproduction of even sensitive mammals need not be affected by field techniques, provided lightweight collars are used and stringent precautions are followed. Measures devised to determine the effects of non-trivial handling in this study are discussed in relation to those that can be obtained in other studies of large mammals.

Laurenson_&_Caro_1994_Observer_effect_on_cheetahs.pdf

Laurenson MK. 1994. High juvenile mortality in cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and its consequences for maternal care. J Zool , Lond 234:387-408.

Juvenile mortality in cheetahs was found to be extremely high compared to other large mammals, with approximately 72.2% of litters dying before they emerged from the lair at eight weeks of age. An average of 83.3% of cubs alive at emergence died by adolescence at 14 months of age, thus cheetah cubs were estimated to have only a 4.8% chance of reaching independence at birth. The instantaneous rate of mortality was highest immediately after cubs emerged from the lair. Before emergence, lion predation was the major source of this mortality, although some cubs died from starvation after they were abandoned by their mothers, or as a result of grass fires and inclement weather. After emergence, predation again accounted for virtually all cub mortality, with lions and spotted hyenas taking approximately the same proportion of cubs. Overall predation accounted for 73.2% of cheetah cub deaths in this study, with 78.2% of these being killed by lions. The extent of maternal care, in the form of vigilance and antipredator behaviour, mirrored cub susceptibility to mortality and, in the case of vigilance, possibly also starvation. The probability of a cheetah mother responding aggressively to a predator was found to also depend on the species of predator. This study highlights the importance of the influence of juvenile mortality on patterns of parental care.

Laurenson_1994_Cheetah_cub_mortality_-_maternal_care.pdf

Laurenson MK. 1995. Implications of high offspring mortality for cheetah population dynamics. In:Sinclas ARE, Arase P, editors. Serengeti II: Research, Conservation and Management of an Ecosystem. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

In this chapter recent findings on the causes of juvenile mortality in cheetahs are discussed and preliminary data presented suggesting that predation on cheetah cubs is an important factor affecting the Serengeti cheetah population. First, the relative importance of factors affecting cheetah fecundity and mortality is considered and second, the effect of variation in fecundity and mortality factors on female lifetime reproduction and cub recruitment rates is simulated. In addition, the implications for cheetahs of recent changes in carnivores numbers in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem are discussed. Finally, the relevance of these findings for cheetah populations elsewhere in Africa and their application to future conservation is considered. Although there is little information on the factors affecting adult mortality in females, these findings provide tentative evidence that offspring mortality, in particular from lion predation, may have a critical effect on the size of the Serengeti cheetah population. Interaction between cheetahs and other predators are potentially important for the population dynamics of cheetahs in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem and deserve further scrutiny.The suggestion that other large predators have a detrimental effect on cheetah population size, is important from conservation perspective. Some pastoralists and ranchers tolerate cheetahs to a greater extent than lions or hyenas and cheetahs seem to prosper in these areas. As cheetahs may have difficulty in reaching large numbers in isolated protected areas, it is perhaps in these multiple land use areas that conservation efforts should be concentrated to find ways in which continuing conflicts between cheetahs and man can be minimized.

Laurenson_-_Implications_of_high_offspring_mortality_for_cheetah_population_dynamics.pdf

Laurenson MK, Caro TM, Gros PM, Wielebnowski N. 1995. Controversial cheetahs? Nature 377(5.October 1995):392.

May has discussed some of recent reappraisals of O'Brien and colleagues' evidence that the cheetah's generic impoverishment is threatening the species' persistence. Some comments, however, particularly those of O'Brien, may be misleading, according to the author's opinion. Particularly, are discussed the causes of cub mortality and the thesis of the vulnerability of the cheetah to pathogens, pointing out that intrinsic source of mortality are apparently insignificant compared with extrinsic source, both in the wild and in captivity. Ecology can be as important as genetics, and interdisciplinary cooperation in conservation problems is essential.

Laurenson_et_al_1995_Controversial_cheetahs.pdf

Laurenson MK. 1995. Behavioural costs and constraints of lactation in free-living cheetahs. Animal Behaviour 50:815-26.

Increased energetic expenditure during lactation must be met either from metabolic stores or by increasing food intake. Additional behavioural costs and constraints may be imposed on those species that conceal their young in a fixed place. This study examines how wild cheetahs, Acinonyx jubatus, alter their behaviour during lactation and whether denning involved extra costs or constraints. Females almost doubled their food intake when lactating, although only mothers with cubs in the lair increased the time they spent drinking. Higher levels of food intake were achieved by catching a greater proportion of larger prey items, hunting these at a higher rate and by increasing the success rate of hunts. Lactating females with emerged cubs increased the proportion of time they spent observing and hunting relative to time spent resting and moving. When lactating females had cubs in the lair they were on the move for longer each day, travelled further, had restricted ranging patterns and tended to make more kills in the heat of the day than when accompanied by their cubs. These latter results suggest that the need to find a safe place, near water, in which to conceal immobile and vulnerable cubs may impose additional behavioural constraints and costs and lactating females.

Laurenson_1995_Behaviour_of_cheetahs_during_lactation.pdf

Laurenson MK, Wielebnowski N, Caro TM. 1995. Extrinsic factors and juvenile mortality in cheetahs. Conservation Biology 9(5):1329-31.

Cheetahs are thought to exhibit low genetic variability and, as a consequence, may suffer high juvenile mortality, impaired reproduction, and susceptibility to disease. Recently, however, independent criticisms have been levelled at this body of work questioning both the analysis and the standards of evidence for lack of genetic diversity as well as the evidence that cheetahs are suffering as a consequence. O'Brien (1994a) combines a number of points in his first rejoinder to these criticisms, including novel interpretations of ecological data that we obtained and concern about their collection and analysis. Here, we first show that this interpretation is seriously flawed and that our conclusion that predation is the key source of mortality in the wild is valid. Then, extending previous criticisms and continuing to focus on this one consequence of lack of genetic variability, we discuss O'Brien et al.'s (1985) interspecific comparison of juvenile mortality in captivity by highlighting analytical problems and presenting new data on captivity.

Laurenson_et_al_1995_Cheetah_mortality.pdf

Laurenson MK. 1995. Cub growth and maternal care in cheetahs. Behavioral Ecology 6(4):405-9.

Using cub growth as an index, the influence of maternal nutrition, litter size, and cub sex on maternal care in cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) were examined and cub and litter growth rates compared with those of larger felids. Seventy-nine free-living cheetah cubs in 21 litters from 15 mothers were weighed at least once between 6 and 48 days of age. Eleven litters were weighed at the begging and end of a 5-day observation of their mothers. The mean cub growth rate varied significantly between litters, due primarily to differences in maternal food intake. Growth declined sharply when maternal foods intake was less than 1.5 kg/day, but did not increase with greater levels of food intake. Lower limits of growth rates may therefore have been set by the mother's food intake, whereas upper limits may be set by the intrinsic physiological ability of cubs to grow. Although male cubs were heavier than female cubs in the same litter when first weighed, major differences in growth rate between the sexes were not apparent at this stage. Both cheetah cubs and litters grow fast relative to other large felids, and it is argued that this may be an adaptation to the high rate of cheetah juvenile mortality from predation.

Laurenson_1995_Cheetah_cub_growth.pdf

Laurent A, Laurent D. 2002. Guépard. In Djibouti: les mammifères d'hier à aujourd'hui pour demain. p 175-177.

Oral and written reports of cheetah observations collected from 1963 to 2001 in Djibouti are resumed in a map. Distribution in adjacent countries are also discussed. While the cheetah is likely to live in most regions of Djibouti, it is in danger of extinction. The species is considered as a luxury good in the country and is very attractive to occasional poachers. The export of trophies from some regions is very important, but confiscation and punishment measures have been recently introduced. Although not common in the 1980s, the cheetah remains widespread in the eastern and southern lowlands of Ethiopia, but it is threatened by illegal hunting and the destruction of the natural habitat by humans. According to a recent report (2002),  the cheetah seems to be numerous in the west Mille district of the Afar region (Werdanso region). In the 1960s, cheetahs have suffered a very serious depletion in Somaila and disappeared from the more settled areas. More recent sightings report the cheetah in the Caluula, Skushuban and Qardho districts and in the Sidali region.

Laurent_&_Laurent_2002_Djibouti_les_mammiferes_d'hier_à_aujourd'hui_pour_demain.pdf

Lavauden L. 1924. Mammifères. In: La Chasse et la faune cynegetique en Tunisie. Tunis: Guénard & Franchi; p 9-13.

The book's subject is the Tunisian game and its hunting. Lavauden wrote that cheetah only occurred in southern Tunisia, south from Chotts, although some individuals might exceptionally move to the north. As an example, cheetahs were killed at Fedjej in 1880 and at El-Hamma in 1913.

Le sujet de ce livre est le gibier de Tunisie et sa chasse. Lavauden écrivait que le guépard était seulement présent au sud de la Tunisie, au sud de Chotts, bien que des individus auraient pu exceptionnellement se déplacer au nord. Des guépards ont par exemple été tués à Fedjej en 1880 et à El-Hamma en 1913.

Lavauden_1924_Mammals_of_Tunisia_-_The_carnivores.pdf

Lavauden L. 1934. Guépard: Les grands Animaux de chasse de l'Afrique Francaise (AOF, AEF et Cameroun). Faune des colonies Francaises V(7):366-7.

The book describes game and its hunting in French Africa. Cheetah was considered to occur throughout African desert and semi-desert habitats. The subspecies Acinonyx jubatus guttatus ranged in Mauritania, Sudan and Chad (Sahelian part of Chad, Ennedi and Borkou).

Le sujet de ce livre est le gibier de l'Afrique française et sa chasse. Le guépard était considéré présent dans tous les habitats désertiques et semi-désertiques africains. La sous-espèce Acinonyx jubatus guttatus se répartissait en Mauritanie, au Soudan et au Tchad (partie sahélienne du Tchad, Ennedi et Borkou).

Lavauden_1934_Big_game_of_French_Africa_-_The_Cheetah.pdf

Lay DM. 1967. A study of the mammals of Iran resulting from the Street Expedition of 1962-63. Fieldiana Zoology 54:219-20.

In this fauna of Iran, the previous cheetah distribution in Iran is given. According the author, the cheetah range seems to be largely determined by the range of gazelle. The advent of the jeep after World War II marked the beginning of its decrease through slaughter of the gazelle.

Dans cette faune d'Iran, l'ancienne répartition du guépard en Iran est présentée. Selon l'auteur, la distribution du guépard semble être largement déterminée par celle des gazelles. L'avènement de la jeep après la deuxième Guerre Mondiale marque le début de son déclin à travers le massacre des gazelles.

Lay_1967_A_study_of_mammals_of_Iran_-_Felidae.pdf

Lazarus J. 1992. Predator monitoring in Thomson's gazelle. SWRC Serengeti Wildlife Research Centre Scientific Report:27-28.

The study of anti-predator behaviour has revealed adaptive variability in the vigilant behaviour shown by prey in the absence of predators, and in defensive tactics under attack. In particular, studies of cheetahs and gazelles conducted by Dr C. FitzGibbon in the 1980s have shown complex ways in which prey escape predation and signal to predators. However, much less is known about the way in which prey deal adaptively with the problem of minimizing predation risk, while maintaining other important activities, when they remain in sensory contact with their predators but are not under attack. This study - conducted from July to December 1991 - examined these questions in interactions between Thomson's gazelle and spotted hyenas and found considerable variation in the level of visual monitoring of nearby predators. Analysis of the adaptive modulation of anti-predator behaviour, as a function of a number of variables influencing both predation risk and the competing demand of feeding, is now under way. The results will complement those of Dr C. FitzGibbon of the Cheetah Project.

Lazarus_1992_Predator_monitoring_in_Thomsons_gazelle.pdf

Le Berre M, Le Guelte L. 1990. Les mammifères actuels dans l'espace Saharien. Vie et Milieu 40(2/3):223-8.

117 Mammalian species are living nowadays in the Sahara which is defined as the whole North-African and terrestrial environment. 91 of them are taken into account in our analysis of their spatial distribution  (26 bats are discarded). The cluster analyzes run on our data showed a latitude effect leading to identification of 4 mammalian clusters from North to South and 5 clusters from West to East. Altitude increases the species diversity (plain-mountain opposition) in relation to ecotypes. This non-random spatial distribution of the mammalian species in the Sahara permits to consider this area as a transition between Paleotropical, Palearctic and Eastern areas. The present Saharan fauna is the result of a regressive evolution from the original Saharan space suggesting that this area represents a faunistic anticyclone.

Le_Berre_&_le_Guelte_1990_Sahara_mammals.pdf

Le Berre M. 1990. Guépard. In:Le Berre M, editor. Faune du Sahara - 2 - Mammifères. Paris: Lechevalier Chabaud; p 360p.

Through a review of literature, this book that focuses on Saharan mammals provides an overview of Saharan cheetah's past and current distribution within each country:
Morocco: Southern Atlas and Figuig
Algeria: Southern Ahaggar, Southern Tassil N'Ajjer, Mouydir, Tindouf, Beni Ounif, Ghardaia, El Golea
Tunisia: Kebili, Tataouine, Nefzaoua (all mention prior to 1935)
Lybia: Ghadames, Cyrenaique, Tripolitaine, Fezzan (all mention prior to 1941)
Egypt: North
Mauritania: Tidjikja, Adrar
Mali: Tanezrouft, Iforas Adrar
Niger: Tamesna, Air
Sudan: North, Eddueim

A travers une revue bibliographique, ce livre qui se concentre sur les mammifères du Sahara fournit une vue d'ensemble de la répartition passée et présente du guépard du Sahara dans chaque pays.

Le_Berre_1990_The_Fauna_of_the_Sahara_-_The_Cheetah.pdf

Le Berre M. 1991. The role of Tassili N'Ajjer (Algeria) in the conservation of the great mammalian fauna in central Sahara. In:McNeely JA, Neronov VM, editors. Mammals in the Palaearctic desert. Moskow: The Russian Acedemy of Sciences, and the Russian Committee for the UNESCO programme on Man and the Biosphere (MAB); p 181-191.

The cheetah is not mentioned in the mammals that have been found in fossiliferous sites of Tassili N'Ajjer, nor found on the rock art representation. In the present mammalian fauna, the cheetah is probably the scarcest carnivore of Tassili. Its presence is noted in the Admer plain, the centre of Tassili and in the vicinity of Afara of Tamadjert.

Le guépard n'est pas mentionné dans les mammifères qui ont été trouvé dans les sites fossilifères du Tassili N'Ajjer et n'a pas été retrouvé sur des peintures rupestres. Dans la faune mammalienne actuelle, le guépard est probablement le plus rare carnivore de Tassili. Sa présence est notée dans la plaine de Admer, au centre de la Tassili et dans les environs de Afara de Tamadjert.

Le_Berre_1991_Tassili_N_Ajjer_-_Conservation_of_mammals.pdf

Le Tallec J. 1979. Le guépard: La grande faune du Sénégal; les mammifères. In:Le Tallec J, editor. La grande faune du Sénégal; les mammifères. Dakar: Les nouvelles editions africaines; p 36.

A description of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) in Senegal, West Africa.

Le_Tallec_1979_Large_fauna_of_Senegal_-_Cheetah.pdf

LeBrun N. 1989. Script for National Geographic TV show 28 p.

Script for National Geographic TV show about cheetahs in the Serengetis. Their prey, their hunt, their enemies.

LeBrun_1989_Script_for_National_Geographic_TV_show.pdf

Lee A.  Management guidelines for species kept in captivity - Section 1 and 2, 51 and 72 p.

Management guidelines for species kept in captivity. Section 1 concerns general information about Acinonyx jubatus. Very extensive report about cheetah's biology and field data. Section 2 concernsthe management in captivity of Acinonyx jubatus. Very extensive report about the cheetah's requirements and previous knowledge about the management in captivity.

Lee_-_Management_guidelines_for_species_kept_in_captivity_Section_1.pdf

Lee_-_Management_guidelines_for_species_kept_in_captivity_Section_2.pdf

Lee AR. 1992. Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) London: The Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland; 34 p.

The Management Guidelines have been produced as a result of an extensive survey of the published literature with additional comments from recognized experts. These data are collated into a standard format so as to make relevant information, currently scattered throughout the literature and often inaccessible, readily available to those involved in cheetah husbandry. Discussed arguments are: (1) biology (taxonomy, morphology, physiology and longevity), including a detailed map of the distribution and the individual's number estimation of cheetah's populations; (2) field data (zoogeography/ecology, diet and feeding behaviour, reproduction and behaviour); and (3) management in captivity (enclosure, feeding, social structure, breeding, population management, handling, legislation, specific problems and additional research).

Lee_1992_Guidelines_for_cheetah_welfare_in_zoos.pdf

Lever C. 1997. The AfriCat Foundation. Oryx 31(1):10-3.

The AfriCat Foundation was formed in November 1992 by Wayne and Lise Hanssen on their 6000-ha farm, Okonjima, to conserve the big cats of Namibia. Of the world population of 9000-12000 cheetahs, Namibia supports some 2500. Only 5 per cent of these are found within Namibian's national parks, the rest occurring on the 6000 or so privately owned farms. A short-term goal of the Foundation is the release of non-problem predators caught in traps back into the wild to maintain a healthy free-ranging population. A medium-term goal is to inform farmers of tried-and-tested antipredator husbandry methods. Finally, long-term goals are to develop measures for farmers that suffer repeated losses of livestock, to establish an education centre at Okonjima and conservancies, and to provide opportunities for scientific research on predators.

Lever_1997_The_AfriCat_Foundation.pdf

Lewin R. 1996. A strategy for survival? New Scientist:14-15.

The desperate plight of the cheetah has highlighted a fundamental rift between ecologists and geneticists on how to help save endangered species. Since the early 1980s, O'Brien and many others have published a stream of scientific papers reporting the alarming fact that cheetahs are about as genetically similar as inbred laboratory mice, and that this hampers their ability to reproduce and survive both in captivity and in the wild. However, independent researchers found that the cheetah is not especially impoverished and there is no evidence that genetic deficiencies contributed to poor reproduction or high infant mortality. According to their opinion, "the preoccupation with genetics diverts attention from the real threat to the cheetah's future, which is loss of its habitat".

Lewin_1996_A_strategy_for_survival.pdf

Lezmi_et_al_2010_Abnormal_prion_in_renal_globuli_of_felines.pdf

Li X, Li W, Cao J, Maehashi K, Huang L, Bachmanov AA, Reed DR, Legrand-Defretin V, Beauchamp GK, Brand JG. 2005. Pseudogenization of a sweet-receptor gene accounts for cats' indifference toward sugar. PLOS Genetics 1(1):27-35.

Although domestic cats (Felis silvestris catus) possess an otherwise functional sense of taste, they, unlike most mammals, do not prefer and may be unable to detect the sweetness of sugars. One possible explanation for this behavior is that cats lack the sensory system to taste sugars and therefore are indifferent to them. Drawing on work in mice, demonstrating that alleles of sweet-receptor genes predict low sugar intake, we examined the possibility that genes involved in the initial transduction of sweet perception might account for the indifference to sweet-tasting foods by cats. We characterized the sweet-receptor genes of domestic cats as well as those of other members of the Felidae family of obligate carnivores, tiger and cheetah. Because the mammalian sweet-taste receptor is formed by the dimerization of two proteins (T1R2 and T1R3; gene symbols Tas1r2 and Tas1r3), we identified and sequenced both genes in the cat by screening a feline genomic BAC library and by performing PCR with degenerate primers on cat genomic DNA. Gene expression was assessed by RT-PCR of taste tissue, in situ hybridization, and immunohistochemistry. The cat Tas1r3 gene shows high sequence similarity with functional Tas1r3 genes of other species. Message from Tas1r3 was detected by RT-PCR of taste tissue. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemical studies demonstrate that Tas1r3 is expressed, as expected, in taste buds. However, the cat Tas1r2 gene shows a 247-base pair microdeletion in exon 3 and stop codons in exons 4 and 6. There was no evidence of detectable mRNA from cat Tas1r2 by RT-PCR or in situ hybridization, and no evidence of protein expression by immunohistochemistry. Tas1r2 in tiger and cheetah and in six healthy adult domestic cats all show the similar deletion and stop codons. We conclude that cat Tas1r3 is an apparently functional and expressed receptor but that cat Tas1r2 is an unexpressed pseudogene. A functional sweettaste receptor heteromer cannot form, and thus the cat lacks the receptor likely necessary for detection of sweet stimuli. This molecular change was very likely an important event in the evolution of the cat's carnivorous behavior.

Li_et_al_2005_Cats_indifference_toward_sugar.pdf

Lindburg D. 1989. When cheetahs are kings. Zoonooz:5-10.

In 1927, Pocock published the official description of the king cheetah (Acinonyx rex). In 1980, Hills and Smithers published a list of 13 known skins and a near equal number of visual records. In 1978-79 their findings were extended by the couple Bottriell, who established clearly that king cheetahs have never been plentiful and that they derive exclusively from adjoining portions of Zimbabwe, eastern Botswana, and the northern and eastern Transvaal of South Africa (resumed in a map).

Lindburg_1989_When_cheetahs_are_kings.pdf

Lindburg DG. 1983. Zoos validate an ancient premonition. Zoo Biology 12:1-2.

The beauty, grace, and charisma of the cheetah have motivated humankind to maintain it in captivity for millenis. Yet, throughout history, the species has sustained a reputation for being difficult to propagate. The species is even more intriguing because of some of its biological characteristics, including (1) a relatively low genetic variability, (2) an unusual ability to produce extraordinarily high numbers of structurally abnormal spermatozoa, and (3) a tendency to show few obvious behavioural clues to sexual receptivity.

Lindburg_1983_Zoos_validate_an_ancient_premonition.pdf

Lindburg DG, Durrant BS, Millard SE, Oosterhuis JE. 1993. Fertility assessment of cheetah males with poor quality semen. Zoo Biology 12(1):97-104.

Reports on semen quality of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) indicate that high percentages of abnormal morphs and sperm concentrations, 10 times lower than in domestic cats, are found in all populations. These characteristics are believed to result from unusual genetic homozygosity, hypothesized to have been caused by passage of the species through one or more population bottlenecks during its recent history. In a sample of 12 captive living males, we found semen characteristics to be equal or inferior to those previously reported for all males living in other captive facilities. Ten of these males (83.3%) nevertheless produced pregnancies. Seventeen of 19 pregnancies, resulted from matings during a single oestrus. This examination of the reproductive potential of males having comparatively inferior ejaculate quality supports the suggestion that husbandry programs may be more significant than physiological impairment in causing the low birth rates in captive cheetahs. These results also have implications for ascertaining fertility thresholds in mammalian populations undergoing increased levels of inbreeding as a consequence of habit deterioration.

Lindburg_et_al_1993_Fertility_assessment_of_cheetah_males.pdf

Lindeque PM, Nowell K, Preisser T, Brain C, Turnbull PCB. 1998. Anthrax in wild cheetahs in the Etosha National Park, Namibia. ARC-Onderstepoort OIE International Congress, 9-15 August 1998; 8 p.

During a study to evaluate the impact of predation on the plains' ungulate populations in the Etosha National Park, seven cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) were radio-collared. Radiotelemetry assisted in finding five of these cheetah after they had died. Four of the cheetah (57%) were confirmed to have died of anthrax, whilst the fifth, although not confirmed, possibly also died from anthrax. It is suggested that the susceptibility of cheetah to anthrax is due to their poor immunity due to lack of exposure to anthrax carcases by being reluctant scavengers. Of seven cheetah tested, only three showed low levels of antibodies to anthrax protective antigen, the others were negative. It is speculated that cheetah are getting the disease through killing animals in the final stages of an anthrax infection.

Lindeque_et_al_1998_International_Congress_-_Anthrax.pdf

Lindeque PM, Nowell K, Preisser T, Brain C, Turnbull PCB.  Anthrax in wild cheetahs in the Etosha NP, Namibia.  1998. Report, 17 pp.

During a study to evaluate the impact of predation on the plains' ungulate populations in the Etosha National Park, seven cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) were radio-collared. Radio-telemetry assisted in finding five of these cheetah after they had died. Four of the cheetah (57%) were confirmed to have died of anthrax, whilst the fifth, although not confirmed, possibly also died from anthrax. It is suggested that the susceptibility of cheetah to anthrax is due to their poor immunity due to lack of exposure to anthrax carcasses by being reluctant scavengers. Of seven cheetah tested, only three showed low levels of antibodies to anthrax protective antigen, the others were negative. It is speculated that cheetah are getting the disease through killing animals in the final stages of an anthrax infection.

Lindeque_et_al_1998_Anthrax_in_wild_cheetahs_ in_Etosha.pdf

Lindholm N. 2005. The introduction of three abandoned cheetah cubs to a foster mother and half siblings at the Fort Worth Zoo. Animal Keeper's Forum 32(7/8):291-3.

In 1994 the Fort Worth Zoo opened a new cheetah facility. By 1995 the population was 2.4 cats.One of the males, Baya Mdomo, was an older animal that had never bred. "Mdomo" was 13 yearsold when he arrived at the Fort Worth Zoo. He had been imported from the de Wildt cheetahbreeding facility in 1987 by the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden. In July 1992 he was transferred
to the Louisville Zoo. He never produced offspring and from keepers daily reports he never appearedto be sexually active, or even interested in breeding. It was hoped that he would breed in Fort Worth since his genetics were desirable to the gene pool.

Lindholm_2005_Abandoned_cheetah_cubs_and_foster_mother.pdf

Lipske M. 1993. Fast cat in a marathon. International Wildlife:20-27.

The problem with the conservation of cheetahs in national parks is that lions live at high densities and play the greatest cause of mortality for cheetah cubs. Of a hundred cubs born, only five reach independence, which is an extraordinary high mortality for a large mammal. In addition to that, there is the problem of the lack of genetic diversity in cheetah populations. Programs of artificial reproduction and the creation of banks of semen were thus initiated. However, according to Tim Caro's opinion, the main threats to cheetah persistence into the next century came from habitat destruction, illegal hunting and the competition from lions and spotted hyenas.

Lipske_1993_Fast_cat_in_a_marathon.pdf

Lipske M. 1993. Fast cat in a marathon. International Wildlife:20-27.

The problem with the conservation of cheetahs in national parks is that lions live at high densities and play the greatest cause of mortality for cheetah cubs. Of a hundred cubs born, only five reach independence, which is an extraordinary high mortality for a large mammal. In addition to that, there is the problem of the lack of genetic diversity in cheetah populations. Programs of artificial reproduction and the creation of banks of semen were thus initiated. However, according to Tim Caro's opinion, the main threats to cheetah persistence into the next century came from habitat destruction, illegal hunting and the competition from lions and spotted hyenas.

Lipske_1993_Fast_cat_in_a_marathon.pdf

Lloyd C and Stidworthy MF. 2009. Acute disseminated toxoplasmosis in a juvenile cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 38, 475-478.

Both the behavioural and the morphological analyses confirm the special role of the dewclaw in the cheetah: a strong hook to stop running animals by using the energy of the victim itself. However, this would hardly be an explanation for the rather large dewclaw in the puma. The present finding of the puma as an intermediate between the cheetah and other large felids for dewclaw size, supports the idea that, despite some later reversal to a more primitive, typically feline structure, the puma originated from felids like the fossil cheetah-like cat Miracinonyx inexpectatus of North America, which had longer, more cursorial limbs (though maintaining fully retractile claws) and, as far as one can judge from phalanx size, larger dewclaws than the extant puma.

Lloyd_&_Stidworthy_2009_Dissiminated_toxoplasmosis_in_cheetah.pdf

Lotshaw R. 1974. The hunting leopard. Your Cincinati Zoo News:1-3.

Indian potentates keeping cheetahs as pets, so did Mongol and European emperors as far back as the 5th Century. Today it is extinct throughout Asia. Human population growth will continue to deplete the already restrictive habitat requirements of the cheetah. Zoos must continue contributing to the saving to this species by deeds. More supervision and conservation measures are needed to protect the cheetah.

Lotshaw_1974_The_Hunting_Leopard.pdf

Louwman JWW, Louwman JCM. 2005. Cheetah breeding program at Wassenaar Wildlife Breeding Centre. Animal Keeper's Forum 32(7/8):368-70.

Cheetah breeding results in zoos have always been rather poor. Even nowadays only very few facilities breed cheetahs repeatedly every year. It is suspected that the low birth rates are due to inadequate husbandry of cheetah in zoos, as results largely differ per facility. Cheetahs seem to need a somewhat different husbandry than other big cats. To meet those requirements the Wassenaar Wildlife Breeding Centre in the Netherlands established in 1980 a protocol for breeding cheetahs. Much had been done to try replicate the cheetahs' life in the wild as much as possible. The strategy proved rather successful and resulted in the birth of 210 cheetahs up to December 2004 (62 litters). Some of these cubs were born in other facilities, but their mothers had been bred at Wassenaar and left WWBC pregnant. Wassenaar cub survival rate during the first six months of age is 88%.

Louwman_&_Louwman_2005_Cheetah_breeding_program_at_Wassenaar.pdf

Louwman JWW, Louwman JCM. 2005. Successful adoption of a cheetah litter at Wassenaar Wildlife Breeding Centre. Animal Keeper's Forum 32(7/8):320-1.

In May 1998 an extraordinary event took place in WWBC. In that month three cheetahs in Wassenaar gave birth to a total of ten cubs within two weeks time. Two of the females were first- time mothers. It is a rule in Wassenaar to weigh all cubs regularly during the first weeks to check health conditions. One of the mothers was not able to feed the cubs and they lost weight. We introduced these cubs to one of the other two females with cubs of the same age. They were accepted.

Louwman_&_Louwman_2005_Successful_adoption_of_a_cheetah_litter.pdf

Lowry A. 1974. Countdown. African Wildlife:12-14.

Only the super-optimist would preach hope for the cheetah, says Andrew Lowry. Here he gives glimpses of his study on the Etosha cheetah- probably the safest of the species. The article is about a female cheetah with her four cubs - he followed and observed them for six months. Cheetah in Ethosha do not appear to have a distinct breeding season, small cubs being observed throughout the year.

Lowry_1974_Countdown.pdf

Lowry A. 1975. Cheetah Research Project Etosha National Park Pretoria: Wildlife Management, University of Pretoria; 14 p.

A report presented at the annual meeting of Professional Officers of the Division of Nature Conservation and Tourism in the 1970s, Namibia. Four groups and two single males were observed in the Etosha National Park. General characteristics such as body size and coat colour were used to separate individuals within a known group, but the facial patterns remained the most reliable identification aid. Movements of individual cheetahs are presented in maps.

Lowry_1975_Cheetah_Research_Project_Etosha.pdf

Lowry,A. Skinner JD, editor. 1976. Aspects of the cheetah situation in Southern Africa. International Symposium of Endangered Wildlife in Southern Africa; Endangered Wildlife Trust, Johannesburg; 35 p.

How have the cheetahs' fortunes fluctuated in the past, where do they stand at present, and what of the future?
There were many uncertainties about the cheetah in the past and it has long been frustrating to reproduce in captivity. Sport hunting and trade in the skins also reduced cheetahs in the past.
In South Africa and Rhodesia the trend is toward cheetah being limited to protected areas only. South West Africa and Botswana are relatively sparsely populated. It should be remembered that political expediency has done the cheetah disservice in the past. The situation regarding cheetah living on farmland will not ease in the future. Intensifying farming methods will be incompatible with the cheetahs' presence. Also exploding human population poses a threat to all wildlife. It will be for future generations to assess what stage the battle for the cheetah was finally lost.

Lowry_1976_Aspects_of_The_Cheetah_Situation_In_Southern_Africa.pdf

Lukas V.  A hand raised cheetah at White Oak Plantation White Oak Plantation; Report, 8 p.

A case history of a female cheetah kitten "Mandy" who was hand raised at White Oak Plantation the winter of 1986. She was refused by the mother and already very weak. Her daily diet and improvement and her health problems are described. At 6.5 months Mandy was put together with her siblings. Hand raising protocol is added.

Lukas_-_A_Hand_Raised_Cheetah_at_White_Oak_Plantation.pdf

Lumpkin S. 1992. Cheetahs. Zoogoer:July-August,10-23.

Despite their once very wide distribution, cheetahs seem never to have existed in large numbers. Compared to lions, cheetahs appear relatively rarely in the fossil record. One of the main reasons for the cheetah's decline is the decline of gazelles and other hoofed prey. Hunting and habitat loss are killing off most species of gazelles.While crops can actually improve the habitat for gazelles, farmers view them as pests and try to eradicate them. Other reasons for the decline are that cheetah cubs are very vulnerable of predation and cheetahs also lose prey to larger carnivores in their range. Some males live in coalitions and some of them remain resident territories that they aggressively defend against other males that leads to a very high rate of adults deaths due to combat between males.Climate change at the end of the Pleistocene, which brought about massive extinctions, most likely accounts for the extinction of the American cheetah and the disappearance of cheetahs form Europe and parts of Asia. A problem in zoos is that cheetahs are notoriously reluctant to breed in captivity.

Lumpkin_1992_Cheetahs.pdf

Lydekker R. 1900. The hunting leopard. In: The Game Animals of India, Burma, Malaya and Tibet. 2 ed. p 344-347.

Referring to the many names that are given to the cheetah. Comparisons about body features with other cats like the leopard and serval. Distribution in Asia and Africa is mentioned and their favorite haunts.

Lydekker_1900_The_hunting_leopard.pdf